Developed by criminologist Michael Gottfredson and sociologist Travis Hirschi in their 1990 publication A General Theory of Crime, this theory focuses on an individual’s inability to demonstrate self-control as an explanation for criminal behaviour. They theorised that individuals who develop greater levels of self-control during childhood would be less likely to demonstrate delinquency as adolescents and would also be less likely to be arrested or convicted as adults. Instead, by exerting self-control, they would: achieve greater success in education -> obtain better employment prospects -> have higher incomes -> ultimately experience better mental and physical health throughout their lives. Therefore, Self-Control Theory emphasises the significant influence of a young person’s environment and upbringing in shaping their later behaviour. This concept is also often referred to as the General Theory of Crime.
Although initially formed as an economic theory, this concept has since been applied within the realms of criminology to explain deviant behaviour. It proposes that those contemplating a criminal act will use rational choice to evaluate the pain vs pleasure as a result of committing the offence. For example, if the pleasure/profit they are set to gain from committing the offence outweighs the pain/punishment, then the act will be carried out. This argument resonates closely with Jeremy Bentham’s 18th century hedonistic concept of ‘utilitarianism’. Naturally, this particular theory has faced significant scrutiny as it relies on the implication that all criminals are able to demonstrate rationality in their decision-making processes.
Routine Activities Theory:
Emerged as a key criminological theory in the late 1970s within the writings of psychologist Lawrence Cohen and criminologist Marcus Felson. They emphasised that three specific elements are required in order for a criminal offence to take place, and all three must be present at that time: (1) a motivated offender, (2) a suitable target, and (3) the absence of supervision by a capable guardian. This particular model is commonly applied to determine why a person offends and also why a person is victimised. This theory has also proven influential in situational crime prevention strategies, particularly when it comes to designing/changing aspects of the environment in order to deter crime (i.e: installing surveillance cameras, implementing neighbourhood watch schemes). For example, by installing CCTV, potential targets become protected, while neighbourhood watch schemes in residential areas reinstate the presence of supervision. This in turn eliminates two of the above required prerequisites for a crime to take place, thus preventing the offence.
This theory takes the stance that people conform to social norms and values due to socialisation. For instance, if a person is able to immerse themselves into society and form attachments or bonds to people and institutions - such as relatives, friends, workplaces and schools - then social normality is maintained and therefore individuals will feel less inclined to commit criminal offences as doing so would disturb the social order for themselves and others around them. Alternatively, crime will take place when a person’s bonds or attachments to society become weak or broken due to trauma or lack of socialisation, as those ties which represent a responsibility to others are severed.
Differential Association Theory:
Developed by criminologist Edwin Sutherland in the early 20th century, this theory proposes that people learn techniques, motives, attitudes and values of criminal behaviour through personal interaction with others who commit crime. Therefore, crime becomes normalised for the individual and so it becomes morally easier for that person to engage in criminal behaviour. Additionally, in order for the individual to successfully become desensitised to criminal behaviour, this model asserts that they must be exposed to more attitudes which violate laws and social norms than opposing attitudes which condemn such behaviour and favour social conformity. This theory somewhat overlaps with Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory formed in the 1970s, which is most commonly applied to children and states that individuals learn behaviours through observing and imitating the actions of others around them.
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