SEG3: Racism in Ethnomusicology

What were the effects of racism and xenophobia on musical analysis, interpretation, and documentation in past ethnomusicological practice?   ~Madeline Robertson, University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire (WRIT 118)

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Conclusion

My current research question, concerning the effects of racism and xenophobia on musical analysis, interpretation, and documentation in past ethnomusicological practice, proved to be very easily addressed across many different types of sources. I’ve gathered enough information to determine for myself that my research is in fact contingent and relevant in the ethnomusicology context. I would, however, also say that there will always be far more sources to consider than can be read, which makes it difficult to reach a definitive conclusion as to the current state of ethnomusicological practice.

I am not surprised by the evidence I found in my chosen sources. The reason that I felt the question needed researching, in the first place, was because I had already identified the problem in previous readings in my personal time. I would still like to explore more older sources to determine just how far an ethnomusicologist of the time was able to go and the absolute depth to which racism and xenophobia affected their reports. I believe I have only revealed the tip of the iceberg in this area.

Continuing into my final Segment 4 project, I would like to explore more of the modern impact these negative sources have had on present day musicology. I would also like to create parallels to a non-musical young adult audience.

As a person of color, it is very difficult for me to read some of the things written in these sources. As a music history major, however, I feel is it an issue that absolutely needs addressing, no matter the personal cost, because of the toll racism and xenophobia takes in the everyday lives of people like me. It is far more important to study these sources critically and learn from them, than to pretend that such hatred did not exist. The music world has always been dominated by white males in the Western tradition, and I feel it is important that I use my own privilege to take steps to disassemble that hierarchy and reveal the beauty of music in all races, cultures, and traditions equally.

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Connecting with an Audience

I believe that my sources all appeal (or attempt to appeal) to an academic, musically trained audience of experts and advanced music scholars. Though this makes sense within the sources’ contexts, this approach proves to be very exclusive to those who desire to learn more about ethnomusicology but lack necessary background knowledge and experience to fully understand the concepts addressed.

That is why I think it is so important to draw connections from these sources to everyday people, especially young adults of my demographic. Music is incredibly important in today’s pop culture, and it’s a shame just how little the average person knows about the origins and histories of their favorite music genres, styles, and influences. It has been scientifically proven that everyone can benefit from any level of music education, and I think it absolutely should be taken advantage of. There is so much to learn from our predecessors; it is crucial, however, that we learn to identify what a truly credible source in ethnomusicology looks like, with clear respect to the subject’s culture.

In this way, then, I want to adapt the information to fit the needs of the average individual and give insight into concepts that would otherwise be considered far too complicated.

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Source Connections by Opinion

Each of my sources fall into one of two categories: harmful ethnomusicological narratives and progressive ethnomusicological narratives. Those that I consider harmful narratives contain derogatory language, use openly racist and xenophobic personal opinion, and enable past negative documentation to set the tone for their own research. What I believe to be a progressive narrative offers reference to all kinds of sources, denounces racism and xenophobia in said sources, and challenges the shortcomings of the sources in a way that respects and admires the culture’s integrity.

Unfortunately, the only source which I can deem progressive, in this sense, in Borge’s commentary on Argentinian jazz criticism. All others either support or enable racial and cultural bias.

This, obviously, is problematic in many ways; the relevance of my research here is proven by the influences such negative ethnomusicological documentation has on consequent research. The fact that only one of my sources reflects the the ideals I look for in research, I believe, is directly proportional to all research. This lack of progressive reporting is all too common in the field.

From here, I’d have to continue my research to really determine if this phenomenon is truly as common as I found in my studies.

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Source Connections by Publication Date

The relationships between these sources can be derived directly from the time of their publication. The chronology of the sources is by far the strongest link that makes or breaks them. Each century of ethnomusicological study seems to represent its own qualities of analysis, documentation, and interpretation, and these differences are apparent within the sources of their origin. Both sources by Wallaschek and Burton are the oldest in my research, originally published in 1893 and 1909, respectively. Much of the field study for both of these studies were conducted in the late 19th century, and feature some of the same characteristics of that era. Racist and xenophobic language are present in both sources, though Wallaschek is blatant and unapologetic in his remarks, whereas Burton lacks this intention and seems to use that language out of ignorance. Insensitive terminology and direct reference to non-white peoples as “savages” are what truly define both of these sources in the context of my research. Since these sources represent the very beginning of professional ethnomusicological documentation, they were seen as a model for future research. The influences of Wallaschek and Burton’s works is evident in Stevenson’s 1968 work. Stepping into the 20th century, Stevenson has lost the personal conviction of racist ideals and has gained a more neutral, objective approach to his studies. Within this neutrality, however, Stevenson often references sources from the 19th century without any refutation of their bias. His source is very unique because it represents a crossroads in society where neutrality finally reigns supreme, but this neutrality does not serve his subjects positively. He expresses no desire to assert his own opinions on the matter, but doesn’t feel the need to correct the offensive opinions of his predecessors. The sources from Tervo and Borge enter into the 21st century in two very distinct ways. Borge’s article directly addresses the racial biases present in modern and past ethnomusicological study and challenges them head on. Tervo, however, attempts to justify issues of appropriation and hybridization within her own northern European culture without addressing the damage that it does to the original culture. Tervo’s perspective is very common among those who do not have significant contact with people of color, which is a demographic even she addressed for her native Finland. Borge references past resources and Tervo bases her research solely on her own study. These are both polar examples of the broad and narrow viewpoints often taken in modern research.

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Reflection: Wallaschek

This source was extremely difficult to read, even in small portions. Personally, I felt angry, shocked, and offended, which I do not believe is the pathos that Wallaschek intended to inspire in his readers. Primitive music, in its entirety, directly advocates white supremacy and elitism in the music world, and because of the notoriety it has gained, it has become a well-known reference material.

After reading this source and considering its role as a forerunner in ethnomusicological documentation, it is now easy to understand how such biased and damaging reports have been written afterward: Primitive music was most likely a strong influencer on many other ethnomusicologists following Wallaschek, and probably took cues from his style of documentation to apply to their own works. I believe this source may be the strongest I have out of all, because of the depth at which it proves my issue to be relevant in the field.

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Reflection: Tervo

I am sure that not every Finnish rapper or hip hop musician appropriates Black American culture so carelessly; however, Tervo does not create a convincing argument to refute that. Truthfully, it seems that she does not feel the need to refute it because she genuinely believes that her statements are positive and out of tribute to the original art form, which many, if not all, of her evidence invalidates.

To me, it is very difficult to believe that Tervo has any authority to speak for her culture’s musical practices, but I believe that that, in itself, is why this source is important to my research. It is easier to fall into biased documentation and interpretation of music if a rhetor has no idea what they are speaking about. A blogger with seemingly no musical education, or experience other than hearing her country’s adaptation of hip hop on the radio, cannot effectively address issues of ethnomusicology to an audience of that field.

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Reflection: Stevenson

Stevenson’s neutrality in this source is of concern to me because he does nothing to discredit the racist and xenophobic statements made by the rhetors he cites directly. If Stevenson truly lacked opinion of the matter, and desired to present Latin American and Black music in a similarly neutral way, why would he choose to include such biased information without openly refuting it? I believe this is a case where a musicologist’s neutrality can actually damage the integrity of their work.

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Reflection: Burton

Burton’s accounts are relevant to my research because it is evidence that even the most passionate and seemingly unbiased ethnomusicologist can be ignorant to the use of negative or derogatory language in reference to his subjects. In this case, it was the norm to use such terms, and was not intended to be disrespectful.

Now, more than a hundred years later, we can reflect on the drastic changes that have taken place in the field since. This source shows how far ethnomusicological practice has come in terms of racial and cultural bias. Burton’s integrity is still present in the musical documentation of today, but modern musicologists are more aware of the underlying connotations that language holds for all kinds of ethnic groups.

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Reflection: Borge

This source is important in my research because it directly addresses race and bias within the popular music world. Not only does it prove that racism and xenophobia are huge factors in the depiction of black music throughout history, but it proves that this misconduct has and will always have a lasting impact on modern ethnomusicological practice.

I believe that this topic is proved to still be very important within ethnomusicology, because, otherwise, the article would not appear in any journal so recently as it did in this case. Also because of its modernity, I feel this article would be the most accessible to young adult readers, who may or may not have background knowledge of music.

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Primitive Music by Richard Wallaschek

The accumulative research of Wallaschek is by far the oldest source among these, written in 1893. In a brief preface, Wallaschek bluntly states that he works “with the music of savage races only” and mentions that he will only reference musical practices of “civilization” when it is necessary to derive important links. In the first chapter of the source, entitled “General Character of the Music of Primitive People,” Wallaschek lists countries and cultures that he considers “primitive” from all six inhabited continents, such as “China,” “Ethiopians,” “Sandwich Islands,” Tasmanians,” “Eskimos,” “Negroes,” and 74 others. The only European groups listed are “Jews,” “Gipsies,” and “Hungarians;” all other savage and primitive groups are found elsewhere in the world, according to Wallaschek. In further chapters, he also goes into personal analysis of primitive singing techniques, composition, instruments, musical systems, and more. Wallaschek relays that many of his colleagues consider “gipsy” music to be “ragged and motley in color as are they themselves,” and agrees that he personally cannot recognize any “decisive value” in their musical practices. Wallaschek also states that “ many peoples (e.g., Oriental nations) have every opportunity of hearing European harmonic music but none of them understand it, and much less would they be able to invent a second voice to a new tune,” concluding that Asian communities lacked the capacity to understand Western fundamental elements of music even if taught. Analysis of African “primitive” music is described often as “ear-splitting,” “naive,” and “violent,” throughout and Wallaschek describes the African tribespeople as wild, naked, abusive, and “impatiently desirous of gaining knowledge” from the white men. Of the sixty-five pages elaborating upon Wallaschek’s experiences with each culture’s music, only one page is dedicated to “Negro music” because, he writes:

“... I think I may say that, speaking generally, these negro-songs are very much overrated, and that as a rule they are mere imitations of European compositions which the negroes have picked up and served up again with slight variations … We must be on our guard against the selections of so-called negro-songs which are often offered to us as negro compositions … I cannot think that these and the rest of the songs deserve the praise given by the editors … After this we may forego the necessity for a thorough examination …”

Richard Wallaschek was a notable Austrian psychologist and musicologist of his time, of which Primitive Music was his best known work. The exigence of this source was the prompting of Wallaschek’s colleagues to expand his lecture information into text, so his audience is mainly academic, among music experts and advanced scholars. By writing this source, his purpose was to educate others about “savage” musical practices, and also to prove Western aesthetics and white ideology to be superior to that of any other global practice of the time. Though Wallaschek is credible in that he is highly educated and experienced in the field, his extreme racial and cultural bias towards all other world groups voids his message of all reliable rhetorical qualities for me as a reader. Because of its early formal publishment in ethnomusicological history, this source is therefore placed somewhere near the very beginning of the information cycle.

Wallaschek, Richard. Primitive Music; An inquiry into the origin and development of music, songs, instruments, dances and pantomimes of savage races. London: 1893. Reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1970.

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"From Appropriation to Translation: Localizing Rap Music to Finland" by Mervi Tervo

This article is a modern analysis of Finnish rap music videos and appropriation of Black American hip hop culture. Tervo assesses the diverse localization and hybridization of hip hop culture in the Finnish cultural context, and uses music videos as a medium extension to aid his critique of Finnish rap. Despite Black American rap music’s exclusive social, political, and economic contexts, Tervo argues that it has managed to take hold in Finland, where those issues are simply not present. “While hip hop has been able to settle in new contexts like this one, it has simultaneously experienced major changes in its original locations … There exists, therefore, a contrast between the current state of hip hop as a global phenomenon and a much articulated stereotypical understanding of the scene, which often points to the historical roots of hip hop as black ghetto culture.” Tervo references six dimensions of authenticity within Black hip hop: the socio-psychological, the racial, the political-economic, the gender-sexual, the social-locational, and the cultural. Based on these standards, Finnish hip hop would be labelled as “fake.” However, Tervo argues that Finnish hip hop has created its own authenticity, and is much more diverse and flexible in its cultural contexts than assumed. Linguistically, Finnish rap was initially satirical or ironic: “The first Finnish-language rap recordings came out at the end of the 1980s. This is what is known as the humor rap phase in Finland, in which the rappers consciously overlooked the ideological aspects of hip-hop culture. The idea of serious Finnish rap was considered a paradox …” Here, Tervo offers that ,because the contexts of the music were different, the appropriation of the desirable elements of hip hop is justified.

Though very little information can be found in English about the rhetor, Tervo seems to be a prominent Finnish blogger of some capacity. Though this source was published in Popular Music & Society, it is unclear whether this publication is of academic or pop culture intention. Tervo does not appear to have any education or qualifications in music. All of these factors contribute to what I feel is very weak ethos. Tervo attempts to appeal pathos, showing her excitement and advocacy for Finnish hip hop. However, much of the evidence she provides intending to support her views ultimately read as contradictory, so her use of pathos, as well as logos, prove ineffective to me. Tervo addresses this blatantly stated appropriation as a compliment, not as a problematic whitewashing of Black culture.

Tervo, Mervi. "From Appropriation to Translation: Localizing Rap Music to Finland." Popular Music & Society 37, no. 2 (May 2014): 169-186. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed April 2017).

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Music in Aztec & Inca Territory by Robert Stevenson

This source by Stevenson is strictly a survey of previous research and documentation regarding the native music of the Aztec and Inca peoples. In his introduction, he very fervently asserts his personal indifference to the negatives and positives offered by his predecessors, and uses both harshly critical and reverent sources in his compilation. Stevenson outlines what is “known” about Aztec and Inca music of its time, and then continues forward in time, narrating the music’s influence and evolution into new cultures. Since he does not express any personal implications of racial and cultural bias, the sources in which he chose to include in the source become the prime focus. A subsection of the chapter entitled “Peruvian ‘Folk Music,’ 1500-1790” contains commentary on “Negro folk music of colonial Peru.” Rhetors identified only as Rossi y Rubí praise the ingenuity and passion of Black slave musicians in Lima, but then conclude their commentary with this: “On the whole, however, we must confess that Negro song and dance, like many other manifestations of their talent and taste, lag as far behind the Indian as does the Indian behind the European.” This statement is without a doubt incredibly racist, to both Black slaves and also to Native Latin Americans, and Stevenson does not address this remark as he continues his literary analysis.

Robert Stevenson was an acclaimed musicologist that studied at seven universities, taught at three other universities, and worked closely with Igor Stravinsky in his youth. He has written countless research surveys on Latin American music, including also works on African American music and American Protestant music of his time. For me, his ethos is very much invented, but he is clearly educated and has experience in the field of musicology. Stevenson does not appeal to pathos at all in the source, and approaches his statements as fact, assuming logos. His lack of opinion in the source allows for all types of sources to, therefore, be presented as factual with no refutation.

Stevenson, Robert. Music in Aztec & Inca Territory. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968.

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American Primitive Music by Frederick R. Burton

In this book, Burton surveys his personal experiences and research of the musical practices of Native American peoples, “with especial attention to the songs of the Ojibways.” This source includes Burton’s personal first hand experiences living and communicating with Native American tribes, as well as melodic transcriptions of short colloquial melodies and complete harmonized arrangements of Ojibwe song, with piano accompaniment and English lyrical translations.  Burton speaks very fondly of Native American musical expression, and frequently conveys his appreciation and dedication to its study: “That Indian songs may be useful to civilization, that is, that they have great art value, I thoroughly believe, and I should be lacking in the courage of my convictions if I did not make such demonstration of my belief as lies in my power.” Here, Burton shows his conviction to use his ethnomusicological skills to showcase the positive nuances of Native American musical practice. He also directly alludes to the importance of race studies in his work, frankly stating: “To the white man generally it is still matter for surprise that there should be any field whatever for serious study in Indian music.” This shows that, at the time of publishing, Burton felt he needed to prove to his white readers that Native American music was of importance to learn. Though Burton consistently expresses positive critique of what he heard, much of the language he uses in reference to his subjects still reflects ideals of racial “otherness,” with inclusions of terminology such as “primitive,” “harsh,” “ugly,” “incomprehensible,” and even the term “Indian,” which is now known to be politically incorrect due to the term’s derogatory beginnings. However, much of this does not seem to be meant as an affront toward Native American peoples; his language seems to stem solely from the cultural, social, and political ignorances of his time. Naturally, much of his wonderment stems from what he absolutely cannot comprehend, from instances that have no translation into Western musical terminology, technique, or dictation. An example of his frustration with this states: “I think no human being could drum and sing this piece and keep both rhythms in tact. The Indian certainly did not. It would take pages to put into notes my attempts to express the variants of those measures … A little figuring of an arithmetical problem will show that it would be impossible.”

There is little information on Burton, none other than he was indeed a prolific musicologist and did extensively study Native American musics. He has written multiple surveys similar to American Primitive Music, and has been cited as a trusted source by PBS. This helps me solidify the rhetor’s ethos, though it is very much invented. His use of invented kairos is very apparent throughout the survey, as he is constantly attempting to prove the relevance of Native American music to “the white man” in an academic audience. He makes appeals to pathos through his own passion and devotion to his studies, and that is very clear in his writing. The exigence of this source, in theory, could be of his own desire to share the cumulation of his personal studies or to educate his Western educated audience upon recognizing the need for such a source.

Burton, Frederick, R. American Primitive Music. New York: 1909. Reprint, New York: Kennikat Press, 1969.

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"Dark Pursuits: Race and Early Argentine Jazz Criticism" by Jason Borge

This article is a general collective analysis of jazz music critique from various Argentine publications since the penetration of jazz into Latin America, beginning in the 1920s. It is fairly expansive and offers instances of both positive and negative criticism of black jazz, however always interpreted through the lens of race. Western music standards are closely tied to the initial preconceptions of jazz “otherness”, as Borge mentions: “Largely, but not entirely, following European models, Latin American vanguards tended at first to relegate jazz to an odd realm of civilized savagery … [some] greeted jazz with primitivist ecstasy tinged with fear.” Borge also states that race studies in Argentina have “frequently been beset by a disavowal of blackness as … an exotic import,” so it was not until this Argentine jazz awakening, Borge says, that music was beginning to be analyzed and interpreted within the context of race, let alone as something completely disconnected from the source of white Argentine culture. Along with the many negative racially biased reviews mentioned in this article, Borge does mention, in fact, that many Argentine jazz journals of the 1930s and 1940s sought to legitimize and normalize “black” jazz as a true and respectable art form. Though these critics advocated for jazz’s authenticity in a seemingly positive manner, derogatory language is still used in reference to black musicians within their statements and, regardless of intention, further objectifies and exoticizes black jazz culture. Borge argues that both negative and positive criticism techniques “enabled contributors to engage with questions of race [and] social class … without, however, subjecting themselves to a rigorous self-examination on these very issues.” In other words, jazz critique gave music experts the opportunity to voice their perspective of jazz through the lens of their bias without needing to internalize why their perspectives were such. Many critics mentioned in Borge’s writing argue over the applied authenticity of jazz, and one critic in particular believed that white Argentine critics possessed the “unique capacity” to interpret black musicians’ inherent and “native” intelligence, establishing himself among other white Argentine critics to be of superior opinion over the art form. Borge continues this thought in his conclusion, where he extrapolates that Latin America must somehow place itself above the realm of “true” jazz, even though jazz influences are extremely present in tango, rumba, and choro music styles of seemingly Latin origin. Borge continues: “… It is precisely such intellectuals’ forced “othering” of jazz that--in their own eyes, at least--safeguarded their own status as full-fledged intellectuals.”

Jason Borge earned his doctorate at the University of California at Berkeley, taught as the Assistant Professor of Spanish at Vanderbilt University, and is currently the Associate Professor of Latin American Literature and Film at University of Texas in Austin. He continually publishes research regarding jazz culture in Latin contexts. His extensive experience and knowledge within the Latin American arts field, among other qualifications, proves his credibility as the rhetor of this source. His information is well cited and provides necessary sourcing and in-depth analysis. In “Dark Pursuits,” he writes for an academic audience to educate about jazz criticism within popular white Argentine culture. His interest and prior knowledge of the topic served as the exigence for this source. Borge’s logos presented in the article regarding the unfairness and appalling statements made against black jazz align with my views, and therefore appeals to me as a reasonable source. This article is kairotic for me because I am investigating the issue. However, for others, this information may be wholly irrelevant.

Borge, Jason. "Dark Pursuits: Race and Early Argentine Jazz Criticism." Afro-Hispanic Review 30, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 63-80. Literary Reference Center, EBSCOhost (accessed March/April 2017).

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Works Cited

Borge, Jason. "Dark Pursuits: Race and Early Argentine Jazz Criticism." Afro-Hispanic Review 30, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 63-80. Literary Reference Center, EBSCOhost (accessed March/April 2017). 

Burton, Frederick, R. American Primitive Music. New York: 1909. Reprint, New York: Kennikat Press, 1969. 

Stevenson, Robert. Music in Aztec & Inca Territory. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968. 

Tervo, Mervi. "From Appropriation to Translation: Localizing Rap Music to Finland." Popular Music & Society 37, no. 2 (May 2014): 169-186. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed April 2017). 

Wallaschek, Richard. Primitive Music; An inquiry into the origin and development of music, songs, instruments, dances and pantomimes of savage races. London: 1893. Reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1970.