Violence Against Aboriginal Women

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Reflection

After creating this project we would like to acknowledge that we focused primarily on cis-gender Aboriginal women. Our intention was not to ignore the voices of transgender Indigenous peoples but given the complexity of this topic and project we found it necessary to keep our area of discussion narrow. 

Through researching we have found that there are a lot of important discussions going on around Indigenous studies and have learned the importance of activism to create positive change. This activism work strives to reimagine Indigenous women’s identities.

KL, EP, CP, HT

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Key Concepts

Health inequities: Health inequities point to the underlying causes of the disparities, many if not most of which sit largely outside the typically constituted domain of "health” (Adelson 2005)

Activism: The policy and practice of taking energetic action to right perceived wrongs that afflict society or a particular group (A Dictionary of Public Health, 2007)

Indigenous peoples: Peoples defined in international or national legislation as having a set of specific rights base on their historical ties to a particular territory, and their cultural or historical distinctiveness from other populations that are often politically dominant (A Dictionary of Geography, 5ed).

Aboriginal is a collective term for the original inhabitants of North American and their descendents. The Indians, Méétis and Inuit groups are recognised as Aboriginal, each holding their unique heritage, cultural practices and beliefs. (Government of Canada, 2012).

First Nation - Whilst no legal definition exists, the term developed to replace the word “Indian” which, to some, was offensive. Therefore, the term refers to Indian peoples of Canada. (Government of Canada, 2012).

Sexism - According to A Dictionary of Sociology (4ed) “Sexism is discrimination on the basis of sex. It ranges from the blatant to the covert and occurs at different levels. [It] occurs at different levels, from the individual to the institutionalized, but all forms combine to preserve inequality. Normally, sex discrimination operates against women and in favour of men.” 

Oppression - “the unjustifiable placing of a burden on someone or some group, by interfering with their powers, interests, or opportunities. Oppression may be deliberate, or an unintended outcome of social arrangements, it may be recognized for what it is, or may go unremarked even by those oppressed.” (the oxford dictionary of philosophy 2 rev ed)

Feminism- A social movement, combining theory with political practice, which seeks to achieve equality between men and women. (Scott 2014)

Colonialism - “The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically” (Oxford Dictionary) 

Patriarchy - “Social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family, the legal dependence of wives and children, and the reckoning of descent and inheritance in the male line; broadly: control by men of a disproportionately large share of power” (Merriam-Websters Dictionary) 

Indian Act - A piece of Canadian legislation consolidated in 1876 from the Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 and the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869 to govern who is considered a “status Indian” and who is entitled to Native land (Lawrence, 2003, pg. 6, Indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca). 

Gradual Civilization Act - “Passed in 1857, sought to assimilate Indian people into Canadian settler society by encouraging enfranchisement” (Indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca) 

Gradual Enfranchisement Act - Implemented the elective band council system and granted the Superintendent General of Indian Affairs extreme control over status Indians (Indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca) 

Bill C-31 - An amendment to the Indian Act passed in 1985 which reinstated status to individuals and their children who had lost it due to section 12(1)(b) (Lawrence, 2003, pg. 9). 

Section 12(1)(b) - A section of the Indian Act which removed status of an Indigenous woman for marrying a “non-Indian” man (Lawrence, 2003, pg. 7-8). 

Residential Schools - “an extensive school system set up by the Canadian government and administered by churches that had the nominal objective of educating Aboriginal children but also the more damaging and equally explicit objectives of indoctrinating them into Euro-Canadian and Christian ways of living and assimilating them into mainstream Canadian society.” Residential schools were in operation from the 1880s until the 1990s. The last residential school was closed in 1996. (Indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca) 

Domestic Violence- According to the Dictionary of Social Work and Social Care, in general domestic violence usually “involve(s) the exercise of power and control by one partner over another in any intimate relationship: by a man over a woman; by a woman over a man; or by one partner over another in same-sex relationships. . .Most commonly, however, domestic violence indicates a specific concern with male violence against women by partners or ex-partners, not only in the home, as ‘domestic’ implies, but also in public places”. Domestic violence can also include family violence. (Harris, J. and White, V. 2013).

Intimate Partner Violence- Is a newer term used to describe domestic violence. Other words to describe these types of intimate abuse include wife battery, spousal battery, etc.

Health disparities: Health disparities are, first and foremost, those indicators of a relative disproportionate burden of disease on a particular population -cp (Adelson 2005)

Socioeconomic Status: A descriptive term for the position of persons in spciety, based on a combination of occupational, educational, and economic criteria. Other factors influence socioeconomic status, including ethnicity, literacy, and cultural characteristics. Socioeconomic status is one of the social determinants of health. (Last 2007).

Social Determinants of Health:  Are the conditions in which people are born, grow, work, live, and age, and the wider set of forces and systems shaping the conditions of daily life. These forces and systems include economic policies and systems, development agendas, social norms, social policies and political systems. (WHO 2015) 

KL, EP, CP, HT

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This timeline presents important events affecting Indigenous women in Canada.

This timeline presents some important events in the history of colonization including some of the violent acts perpetrated against Aboriginal women in Canada. It is not a complete history, but gives a glimpse of the timeline of events discussed throughout this tumblr page. -ep

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Thank you, Stephen Harper. Sincerely, Indigenous women

Indigenous women have something to say to the Conservative prime minister, but it isn't what you think.

This newspaper article, published just before the federal election in October 2015, presents the most contemporary issues being confronted by Indigenous Canadian women. When researching and learning about violence faced by Aboriginal women, it is easy to feel angry, helpless, and defeated. This is why we need to begin focusing on the positive developments in the story of Canada’s Indigenous women. Although the past ten years under the Harper government have been some of the most oppressive and racist towards Aboriginal women, they have also been some of the greatest in terms of Aboriginal empowerment and social movements. Some of the movements mentioned in this article include The Idle No More Movement, MMIW (missing and murdered Indigenous women activism), The Am I Next? campaign, and My Reconciliation movement.   

This grassroots, Aboriginal-lead activism is essential because international and Canadian campaigns to end violence against women rarely ever focus on Canadian Indigenous women. -ep 

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"When the women heal, the family will heal. And when the family heals the Nation will heal."

Margaret Lavelle 

Since this project is being created in a class titled Gender and Health, it is important to discuss how violence against women affects not only the physical, emotional, and spiritual health of women, but also the health of entire communities. This quote from Margaret Lavelle, is actually an old Aboriginal principle (Kenney 2006). This saying does two things: first it recognizes that in many ways every level of society can be unhealthy, and that women are at the core of this issue; secondly it acknowledges that healing is possible, beginning with ending the abuse against women. 

To understand the connection between violence and health, one must learn the concept of the social determinants of health. Social determinants of health are the social factors that influence individuals health including age, sex, gender, occupation, ethnicity, place of birth, socioeconomic status, in addition to the greater forces that shape their daily lives. Aboriginal women are disproportionately more likely to have poor health than non-Aboriginal women because of some of these factors, especially gender and ethnicity in combination with the experience of colonization. In Bourasss's et al. article on Aboriginal women's health, the argument that Aboriginal women are unhealthy because of multiple forms of oppression such as sexism and racism is made. Furthermore, the authors argue that Aboriginal women have to work hard to push back against the negative constructions of Aboriginal identities in order to gain status and health (Bourassa et al. 2004). 

- ep 

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This video published by the Native Women's Association of Canada is a great example of an Aboriginal-lead organization working towards eliminating violence against women. Many organizations and campaigns working towards eliminating violence against women or family violence use this method of sharing first-person accounts of experiencing intimate partner violence. At the very least these campaigns are successful in getting the message out to people that domestic violence is a major issue in Canadian society that needs acknowledgement so victims and their families can be understood and receive support. Although some of the stories can be extremely difficult to listen to or read, it is important for victims to share their experiences and their successes in living through violence. In addition to several videos similar to this one, the Native Women's Association of Canada has released You Are Not Alone: a toolkit for Aboriginal Women escaping domestic violence. This toolkit is an incredible resource created specifically for Aboriginal women in Canada. The most important points outlined in this toolkit include: how colonization still impacts Aboriginal lives, a clear explanation of how to know whether or not you are in a violent relationship, simple safety planning tips, and finally positive, reassuring language.

-ep

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I tried to get away. First I went to his mom’s house. She said I was a bad wife and I deserved to get beat. She told [him] I tried to talk to her, and he beat me hard. He would never let me have any money. I had to account for every penny. He took out the phone so I couldn’t talk to anybody. I tried to go to the Chief. He told me to go home. Then [the Chief] told [him] he’d better keep an eye on his woman … It’s sixty-two miles to town. I’ve got no money. There’s nobody I can trust. I don’t drive. The social worker is [his] cousin, and all my relatives tell me to keep quiet ‘cause it’s “family business.” I would just walk to town but I don’t want to leave my kids with him." Woman, age 22, Manitoba

Woman, age 22, Manitoba (Aboriginal Healing Foundation 2003)

This quote taken from research done by the AHF (Aboriginal Healing Foundation) on the issue of domestic violence, summarizes the countless barriers Aboriginal women face to accessing help when they are being abused. Domestic violence in communities similar to this one, will not be eliminated until the larger community, including elders, completely change the community structure. From the domestic violence study, AHF released recommendations on how communities can change. This framework for intervention included: changing the dominant norms and behaviours, creating a community response team, training individuals in violence intervention, creating an intervention protocol, allowing for alternative programs of healing, and educating the greater public. (AHF, p.85)

Domestic violence is pervasive among Aboriginal communities in Canada. Recent research on the topic by Chassidy Puchula, et al. concluded that elders can play a crucial role in the care of victims of domestic violence in their communities by providing traditional stories (2010). Having elders share their oral stories regarding relationships can have a positive impact on Aboriginal communities because according to historical and anthropological records, domestic violence was rare prior to colonization (Puchula et, al. 90). Essentially, elders can help perpetrators and victims of violence to reconstruct self narratives that reflect traditional Aboriginal culture, ultimately decreasing rates of domestic violence. 

Clearly, some of  the best methods for eliminating domestic violence in Aboriginal communities is to utilize the traditional elders through community-based spiritual approaches, and to create frameworks like the one outlines by the Aboriginal Healing Foundation. When it comes to research on domestic violence, there needs to be a greater focus on the needs of Aboriginal communities. 

- EP 

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What Is Domestic Violence? Why Are Aboriginal Women More Likely than Non-Aboriginal Women to Experience Violence?

Discussing domestic violence is an important part of understanding violence against Aboriginal women because according to The Aboriginal Healing Foundation (AHF), it is the most pervasive form of abuse throughout Aboriginal communities in Canada.

First of all  the majority of domestic violence in Canada is being perpetuated by men onto women. The Native Women's Association of Canada describes domestic violence as a partner or ex-partner abusing, controlling, or attempting to control the victim through physical violence, threats of physical violence, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, verbal abuse, psychological abuse, spiritual abuse, financial abuse, criminal harassment, and stalking (NWAC, p.2). It is important to note that domestic violence may also include violence among adult family members. Only in the last thirty years domestic violence has been viewed as a social issue needing to be researched, therefore little research has been done, especially research with an Aboriginal focus.

           One major empirical study compared rates of intimate partner violence among Aboriginal women, compared to non-Aboriginal women.  By analyzing responses from the 1999 Statistics Canada General Social Survey, BrownRidge discovered that after accounting for multiple risk factors, Aboriginal women were still three times more likely to experience intimate partner violence than non-Aboriginal women (2003, p. 66). The unmeasurable social experience of colonization is the reason for the higher rates of abuse affecting Aboriginal women. 

Another study suggested that one of the major factors contributing to violence against Aboriginal women is lower Socioeconomic Position (SEP) compared to other populations. However, it is important to recognize that the cause behind low SEP, is colonization (Douad, et al. 2013). Prior to colonization, many Aboriginal communities were matrilineal structures. The patriarchal colonizers undermined these matrilineal structures, refusing to work with or do business: in a sense, with women. By removing the high status women held in their communities, colonialism disrupted the structure of Aboriginal societies, leading to broken societies, permeated with domestic violence. 

-picture retrieved from: http://www.mdas.org.au/familyviolence

- EP 

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Difficulties in accessing quality support

There are many barriers which prevent aboriginal women from accessing support for substance abuse issues. The systemic social misunderstanding surrounding addiction, the stigma which women report feeling when attempting to access support, as well as the lack of women centred aboriginal care are deterrents from seeking help. In addition, when there are services provided, they may not provide a supportive client-focus program.

Safe and reliable support for substance use problems should be readily accessible, but unfortunately, this is not always the case. Recently, in Vancouver,  The Province's article addressed an audit which discovered "financial irregularities — including hundreds of thousands of dollars in unsupported expenses — poor oversight and inadequate services at an east Vancouver non-profit tasked with helping at-risk and vulnerable clients."

Hey Way’ Noqu’ was established in 1989 and offered mental-health and addictions counselling for aboriginal youth and adults. This uncovering illustrates that although there may appear to be support systems set in place, they may not be serving those in need adequately.

   For further reading, follow the link below:

http://www.theprovince.com/news/Audit+nails+Vancouver+addictions+profit+society+unsupported+expenses/11513406/story.html

-CP

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A major health concern in Canada is the substance abuse among aboriginal women (Mehrabadi et al, 2008). Exacerbating this issue is a major lack in gender-specific support programs and research existing for women in the Aboriginal population who have substance use problems (Mehrabadi et al, 2008). Within this bracket of the population, more than half of criminalized aboriginal women, identify current or previous addiction to drugs (Addiction Research Chair). This is an important social issue as aboriginal women represent 31.7% of all federally sentenced women while only composing 3% of Canadian population (Ontario Women's Justice Network).

The Addiction Research Chair, a research foundation, began a study to “examine the experiential paths of how aboriginal women in conflict with the law constituted reconstitute their self-identity, prior to, during and following treatment for illicit drug use.” In this research, it was found that in order to help these women with their addiction, it is important to help them find their sense of identity.

“For so many years, until I came to this treatment centre, I thought being Aboriginal meant drinking and drugging. Now I'm starting to see that I can be proud of who I am.”

The above quote was used in the study’s findings and provides powerful support to this studies central focus on the  significance of self identity (Show Me the Evidence -  From Stilettos to Moccasins: A Healing Journey).

This music video was created from the findings of a research project from The Addiction Research Chair. It addresses the significance of identity and the stigma Aboriginal Women’s can feel which inhibits their access to support for illicit drug abuse.

 (via https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1QRb8wA2iHs)

-CP

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A cultural approach to recovery

http://globalnews.ca/news/2076277/researchers-launch-a-world-first-a-tool-to-help-indigenous-addicts-recover/

Recently, in order to provide better support for aboriginal communities and individuals who struggle with substance abuse, there has been a move to incorporate culture into the recovery process. Based on indigenous knowledge, the Native Wellness Assessment tool was developed with the intention of focusing on the person's overall wellness from holistic perspective (Thunderbird Partnership Foundation: Native Wellness Assessment Instrument Launched in Saskatoon, 2015). This instrument is available for use across Canada through http://nnapf.com/about-n-n-a-p-f/scope-of-work/addictions-management-information-system/.

The Thunderbird Partnership Foundation, whose formation was announced on June 25th, 20125, was previously known as the National Native Addictions Partnership Foundation. The Native Wellness Assessment tool was developed from a collaborative research project which involved the National Native Addiction Partnership Foundation, The University of Saskatchewan, that Assembly of First Nations, and the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health,

In the Global News article, Carol Hopkins, the executive director of the Thunderbird Partnership Foundation, states "[you] can't look at only one aspect of an individuals life, and hope to promote wellness, if you want to promote wellness you have to look at the whole person."

Unfortunately, most programs are currently set up to respond primarily to a persons' departure from health (Adelson, 2005). This can result in ignoring off cultural differences in regards to what "health" is, social and economic conditions, as well as the cultural values. With substance abuse and addiction, it is insufficient to only look at this departure from health without considering the contributing factors and other aspects of health which may be also affected.

It is important to note that a sense of health, and recovery from addiction, is not as simple as just doing "culture;" there are social and historical factors acting as major barriers to an aboriginal person's wellbeing (Adelson, 2005). This program, however, focuses on the integration of the recovery of substance abuse with culture in a holistic approach. This approach promotes the wellness of the whole person.

"Health for First Nations is broadly envisioned as wellness and is understood to exist where there is physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual harmony"

(Thunderbird Partnership Foundation: Native Wellness Assessment Instrument Launched in Saskatoon, 2015)

 -cp

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Stigma, as well as guilt and shame, have been identified as barriers for women to accessing treatment, in particular for mothers according to the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Project (#74289)

http://www.addictionresearchchair.ca/creating-knowledge/national/aboriginal-women-drug-users-in-conflict-with-the-law/

-CP

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Although not specifically speaking to Aboriginal women, this talk sheds a valuable perspective on addiction and illicit drug use. Johann Hari addresses what causes addiction, the gaps the biological explanation leaves, the current methods which are employed to help rehabilitate individuals who have addiction problems, and how we can move towards social, and political recovery.

-CP

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Stigmatization: Addiction within the Aboriginal Population

"This passage in a brochure for Laurie River Lodge, a fishing lodge in Manitoba, sparked public backlash for advising clients against giving First Nations guides alcohol because they have a 'basic intolerance' for it. The brochure has since been removed from the lodge's website. (CBC)"

Although this passage in the brochure is not directly targeting women, it demonstrates the inherent racism which still exists towards aboriginal people. The CBC article highlights this standing racism, and the focus of scientific research to determine the genetic predisposition which exposes aboriginal people to alcoholism. This focus is likened to the studies done in the 1930's where there were two cases of studies "comparing negro brains to white brains". When focus is directed towards biological factors, the social conditions and circumstances are forgotten about; this can result in the downplaying of their significance . 

In an interview with Dr. Joel Kettner, he states that "there are many indigenous populations around the world that have been colonized and oppressed by settlers where we have seen the same patterns of poverty, of poor housing, disenfranchisement." He goes on to draw attention to the fact that "there is increasing evidence that these are the factors that lead to poor individual health, poor social health, poor community health, and these are what we need to focus our attention on."

Expanding on Dr. Kettner's statements, as aboriginal women have higher rates of poverty and violence rates in Canada (Bourassa 2004), it would be reasonable to suggest that being an aboriginal women would accentuate their susceptibility to poor individual and social health.

This prejudice towards aboriginals, and the lack of awareness and understanding about the social barriers to health and wellness creates a situation where it is difficult to recover the major health and social inequities the aboriginal people face.

  For the full article and the interview with Dr. Joel Kettner, click the link below:

http://www.cbc.ca/news/aboriginal/aboriginal-people-and-alcohol-not-a-genetic-predisposition-1.2660167

 -CP

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Substance Abuse: A complex health issue

Substance abuse has been highlighted as a major health issue within the aboriginal population (Adelson, 2005).  Alcohol abuse and unemployment were identified as the most important social problems, closely followed by drug abuse and family violence (Adelson, 2005). These current issues are occurring in disproportionate numbers throughout the aboriginal population, specifically, in women who are more vulnerable to poverty and the associated health and social effects (Adelson, 2005).

In a study done by Mehrabadi et al (2008), it was found that young women who were involved in recent sex work were likely to report frequent drug use. There was a significant association between lifetime sexual abuse and women becoming involved in sex work. It was further demonstrated that this sexual abuse was reported to have first occurred during early childhood, with the median age of 6 years old (Mehrabadi et al. 2008).

One of the most concerning aspects of the substance abuse findings in the Mehrabadi et al study (2008), was the frequent cocaine injection reported by women involved in sex work. This substance use is associated with intense injection patterns which have been shown to lead to increased risk for HIV transmission. HIV/AIDS is highly correlated with unstable housing, homelessness, sexual/physical abuse which are also related to injection drug use (Adelson, 2005).

In 2005, data shows that between 3600-5100 aboriginal persons were living with HIV in Canada, which represents around 7.5% of all prevalent HIV infections. This is significant because aboriginal persons only account for 3% of the population of Canada. Furthermore, this report indicated that aboriginal women have an increasing risk of being affected by HIV. Within the amoriginal population, women represented 47.3% of new positive HIV test reports, whereas in non-aboriginal people, women comprisen 20.5%. Individuals are more vulnerable to HIV when there is illegal drug use, with approximately 60% of new infections are attributable to injection drug use (Mehrabadi et al, 2008)

Substance use problems do not stand alone from the other health disparities mentioned above. Sexual abuse, becoming involved in sex work, and contraction of HIV are only a few examples of associated health and social issues related to substance abuse. As with the social forces which resulted in aboriginal women being exposed to these situations, the associated health concerns are intergenerational and perpetual. It is impossible to separate this social issue from others and in order to acknowledge its complexity, it must be looked at through a multifactorial lens.    

 -cp

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Moving Forward With Trudeau?

In the recent federal election, the issue of missing and murdered Aboriginal women gained attention. Following the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Reports of 2014 and 2015 reporting on the shocking extent of the tragedy, calls for a national public inquiry, with the support of the federal government have intensified (Ireland, 2015). Campaigners are supporting an inquiry not only to increase the solved case rates but also to educate Canadians on the scope of the problem (Ireland, 2015).

In the run-up to the election, the Liberal Party, the NDP and the Green Party all pledged to call a national inquiry, with many individuals criticising the actions of Harper and the Conservatives who relegated the issue to a matter of law and order (Csanady, 2015).

Now with the Liberal Party and Trudeau in power, can Canada expect an inquiry into the scandal? From what Trudeau has claimed – an immediate launch of a national inquiry with recommendations from law enforcement (Liberal, 2015) – and considering a record number of eight MPs have been elected for the Liberals, yes, activists and Canada as a whole should expect progress (Roman, 2015). Though Liberal governments have a record of breaking promises to Aboriginal peoples, perhaps with such strong support from the communities in the 2015 election, Trudeau will change this (King, 2015).

HT

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Indigenous and non-indigenous women have begun to band together annually at the Women’s Memorial March for the missing and murdered women of the Downtown Eastside held every year on February 14th.

 “We are here to honour and remember the women, and we are here because we are failing to protect women from the degradation of poverty and systemic exploitation, abuse and violence. We are here in sorrow and in anger because the violence continues each and every day and the list of missing and murdered women gets longer every year,” says Marlene George, Memorial March Committee organizer (George, 2012). The march is held to give voice to the systematic injustices that colonialism has created and instilled in the lives of Indigenous women. Ending the physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual abuse and creating justice for women living in poverty is the number one goal of the Women’s Memorial March. “The February 14th Women’s Memorial March is an opportunity to come together to grieve the loss of our beloved sisters, remember the women who are still missing, and to dedicate ourselves to justice” (George, 2012). 

https://womensmemorialmarch.wordpress.com 

KL