I’m just making this post to help explain exactly what epithets are, how they’re used, and the different types. I know that for beginners, getting a hold of all the terms used in relation to deity worship and/or work can be tough, and I’ve seen this subject trip people up in the past when they read about certain deities or translations of ancient texts.
For a quick definition, epithets are “an adjective or descriptive phrase expressing a quality characteristic of the person or thing mentioned”. In relation to epithets of deities, you might also see them called ‘surnames’ and they're basically nicknames or bynames to refer to specific aspects or forms of a deity. Typically, they’re used alongside the actual name of the deity but there’s also plenty of times where only the epithet is used, such as calling Apollo by simply “Phoebus” and not “Phoebus Apollo” or calling Athena by only saying “Pallas”. This happens a lot in texts like the Iliad or the Aeneid where using the full name paired with the epithet every time would eventually end up sounding too repetitive but also, to ancient people, certain epithets would have been easily recognizable on their own and they wouldn’t need to have the actual name given. They can come before or after a deity’s actual name, order doesn’t really matter, it’s just whatever grammar rules you’re following.
Generally speaking, there are four main types of epithets used in polytheistic religions: regional, functional, syncretic/fusion, and poetic. And just as a note; most of my religious experience is with Greek, Roman, and Gaulish religions so that’s where I’m gonna be getting most, if not all, of the examples used below.
The categories are, for the most part, arbirtrary but can be helpful when understanding epithets in a general sense when you come across them. Some types overlap with each other, for example, Dionysos Melanaigis (lit. Dionysos of the black goatskin) refers jointly to a functional/cultic role his worship played in a ritual during the Apaturia festival in Athens AND to a story in myth where he wears a black goat skin and comes to the aid of a guy named Melanthus (which is the mythic explanation for why he’s worshipped during Apaturia) but it makes Melanaigis a regional epithet (only used in Athens), a functional cult epithet (was only during rites to him for a specific event) and a mythic epithet (as it refers to a specific mythic event). Similarly, there's examples with Apollo; Delphios Apollo refers to both the form of Apollo specifically in Delphi (regional epithet) AND to Apollo in his function as an oracular deity of prophecy (functional), and Pythian Apollo refers to Apollo around the area where he slayed the mythical Python (so both a reference to myth as well as regional, in this case referring to the area around Delphi) and also functional, since it can refer to his oracular function.
Additionally, epithets can be shared by multiple deities, “Phoebus” was used to refer to both Apollo and Helios, “Antheia” was both the name of a standalone deity as well as an epithet to Hera and Aphrodite, “Bacchus” was an epithet for the Etruscan god Fufluns and to Dionysus and would eventually become to go-to byname for Dionysos in Rome. There are also epithets such as “Aetnaeus” which refers to any number of deities associated with Mount Etna, including Zeus and Hephaestus, and “Eleutherios” which could refer to Dionysos, Zeus, or Eros.
The first type is regional or locative/toponymic epithets. These are used when referencing a form of a deity that is unique to a certain place for whatever reason or originated there. Sometimes deities will have unique local forms because of the inevitable variations of religion in any given culture (no religion is or was a monolith) and there may or may not be pseudo-historical/mythical reasons for the specific local variation. But it's pretty much just saying “the form of this deity that resides in Town A” or “the form of this deity representing a specific thing they did at this site”, examples include:
➻ Diana Nemorensis — literally: “Diana of Nemi”, used specifically to refer to her cult at Lake Nemi and was the form of Diana celebrated there during Nemoralia.
➻ Apollo Palatinus and Apollo Delphios — literally: “Apollo on the Palatine” referring to the temple built to him on the Palatine Hill in Rome by Augustus, this form of Apollo was also Augustus’ personal protector. Apollo Delphios was mentioned earlier but it refers to the oracular-centric form of Apollo in Delphi.
➻ Artemis Ephesus — literally: “Artemis of Ephesus”, refers to a form of Artemis unique to the city of Ephesus who had a very different representation to the other forms of Artemis. This manifestation of her was transported to multiple other cities such as Massalia and it was a form that was a sort of mother-goddess.
➻ Zeus & Hephaestus Aetnaeus — literally: “of Mount Etna”, for Zeus it refers to the form of him which has a small shrine and festival there and for Hephaestus, it refers to where he has his workshop.
These epithets are ones that reference a specific (often cultic) function of the god. Many deities have multiple roles or concepts they embody and have domain over, so epithets can be used to zero-in on just the side of a deity relevant to why you’re praying to them or giving offerings. There are also festival-specific epithets which can be used on specific festivals in honor of that aspect of the given deity. Some examples include:
➻ Hercules Olivarius & Hercules Augusti — literally: “Hercules of the Olive Merchants”, referring specifically to his ability to guard the olive industry in Rome and also “Hercules of the Emperor” which was used to refer to the aspect of Hercules that guarded Roman emperors. (Gotta say, if I had to choose, it's Olive-Merchant Hercules every time for me)
➻ Hermes & Apollo Theoxenios — literally: “of the Theoxenia festival” and was the name used to invoke both Hermes and Apollo during that specific festival.
➻ Aphrodite Areia — literally: “Warlike Aphrodite” or “Aphrodite of War”, used to call specifically on Aphrodite’s war function.
➻ Apollo Acestor & Apollo Kataibates — literally: “Apollo the Healer”, was used when calling on Apollo to aid in healing, and Apollo Kataibatês literally meant “Apollo, Protector of Travelers” (also used for for Hermes) and was used by people to thank him for a safe journey or to ask for protection on a journey they were about to take.
➻ Poseidon Isthmia — literally: “Poseidon of the Isthmian Games” which was used only to call on him during this athletic festival.
➻ Ceres Legifera — literally: “Ceres, Keeper of the Laws (of marriage)”, was used to invoke her in marriage processions and during the confarreatio (a type of Roman marriage ritual where the couple eats a cake made with sacred wheat)
Another form of epithets are those that serve to equate or combine deities. Oftentimes, foreign deities from one culture may transform into epithets of deities from other cultures or two deities within a single culture might be combined into one. This was especially common with Iron-Age Celtic deities in places that adopted aspects of Roman and Greek religion due to being governed by or just from existing in close proximity to them. Within Greek religion, it was common for more “archaic” or minor deities to become epithets of deities that held more cultural prominence. Some examples include:
➻ Apollo Grannus, Apollo Maponos, & Apollo Belenos — Grannus, Maponos, and Belenos were all standalone deities in Gaulish culture that became associated with Apollo once Roman religious influence spread. Each has their own unique nuance but all seem to be related to Apollo’s healing function
➻ Mars Condatis & Mars Toutatis — Both Condatis and Toutatis are also independently attested Celtic gods and both were interpreted to be a form of Mars. Through some of his Celtic epithets, Mars gained a traditionally uncharacteristic healing function.
➻ Sulis Minerva — Sulis is a Brythonic healing goddess and through her identification with Minerva, enjoyed a pretty large cult in Roman Britain.
➻ Poseidon Erechtheus — a fusion of Poseidon and a mythical king of Athens who was most likely a minor deity at some point. It would go on to be used as a name for Poseidon when in relation to Athens.
➻ Dionysos Zagreus — This is an equation that happened mostly in Orphism and other mystic cults but the earliest evidence suggests that Zagreus was originally a standalone deity or an aspect of Hades which later became an aspect of Dionysos.
➻ Mars Quirinus — Quirinus simultaneously became an epithet to Mars and also maintained an independent presence in Roman religion. It’s partly through his identification with Mars that the latter started to be more warlike as opposed to an agricultural deity.
➻ Pallas Athena — In some tellings, notably in pseudo-Apollodorus’ “Bibliotheca”, this name is the result of Athena taking the name of a Titaness named Pallas, daughter of Triton. Could also be a fusion of Athena and the giant named Pallas.
➻ Serapis/Osorapis/Userhapi — Userhapi and Oserapis are transliterations of the coptic name for Osiris-Apis which became Hellenized as “Serapis” under the Ptolemaic dynasty. It is the result of identifying Apis (a sacred bull turned deity during the Second Dynasty) and the Egyptian god Osiris.
Poetic (or literary) epithets are, well, epithets just used poetically in ancient literature. They don’t refer to cult or ritual functions and usually either are physical descriptors, compliments, or mythic achievements. It can also include any epithets used to describe mythic standing in relation to other gods, such Ovid calling Aurora “Pallantias” to signify that in his telling, she’s the daughter of the titan Pallas. They can be used in a devotional sense and in a more solely creative one to evoke a certain feeling from the reader and set a scene and they may be referred to as “Homeric epithets” as well since many come from Homeric works. Another function of Homeric epithets can be to help a line of poetry satisfy the line/format requirements of dactylic hexameter. Here's a nifty overview of the grammatical and descriptive purposes for various epithets in the Iliad and Odyssey. If you’ve ever read ancient epic poetry then you’ve encountered loads of poetic epithets, examples including:
➻ Eos Rhododactylos: literally “Rosy-Fingered Eos”, Eos Erigenia: literally “Early-Born Eos”
➻ Aphrodite Philommeides: literally “Laughter-Loving Aphrodite”, Aphrodite Eustephanos: literally “Richly-Crowned Aphrodite”
➻ Artemis Khrysenios: literally “Artemis Who Holds Golden Reins”, Artemis Keladeinos: literally “Strong-Voiced Artemis”
➻ Hermes Argeiphontes: literally “Hermes, Slayer of Argos” (a shepherd he killed in myth), Hermes Kharidotes: literally “Hermes, Giver of Joy”
➻ Hades Polysemantor: literally “Hades, Ruler of Many”, Hades Nekron Soter: literally “Hades, the Savior of the Dead"
When it comes to using epithets in your practice, it's largely a personal choice. By no means is it something that you MUST do but, it's also not something that doesn't have a place in modern polytheism. I, for one, tend to find that it can connect my worship to a certain form/aspect of a deity (for instance, Apollo) more quickly or serve to "set the mood" more effectively. I tend to pray to epithets of him for his healing/protective/oracular roles, however, I'm not as personally connected to his musical/artistic roles so on the relatively rare occasions that I find myself wanting to invoke those aspects, using epithets related to that makes me feel closer to them. They can also be used to enhance prayers if you're someone who enjoys having very artistic wording or just wants to glorify the deity you're praying to.
Another way I like to use epithets is to create my own to use in prayers or as a devotional activity. This could mean creating new poetic epithets as compliments to a deity, creating an epithet to invoke them at a local place, or even making an epithet for a role they have in your UPG but do not traditionally have. I usually try to make them in various forms of Ancient Greek, Latin, Gaulish, or in English but you could utilize any language you feel like, it doesn't need to be the language of the ancient culture(s) where the deity was worshipped. And importantly, it doesn't need to perfect. I am certainly not fluent in any form of Ancient Greek or in Latin so it can take a while to get the correct (or even just loosely acceptable) grammatical set-up and lots of comparison with actual ancient epithets. Just for some examples, here's some epithets I've created for various deities:
➻ Dionysos Tautoteus: literally "Dionysus of Identity" but I made it to refer to him as a protector/affirmer of self-identification in relation to sexuality and/or gender.
➻ Eos Dendrokhoria & Eos Anthestephanos: literally "Eos who Dances in the Trees" to refer to when the sunrise is barely visible above the tree line (I usually pray to her at dawn and there's a forest in that direction from my house lol) and the second is literally "Flower-Crowned Eos", just a reference to her being traditionally described as wearing flowers.
➻ Sirona Lindaia: literally "Sirona of the Lake" which I made to use when praying or giving offering to her at lakes, pretty self-explanatory but I also have made a bunch of others for her such as Sirona Nantaia (Sirona of the Stream), Sirona Natrix (Sirona of the Snake), and Sirona Dumnorigana (Sirona, the Queen of the Depths).
Some Useful Resources for Epithets
For most Greek deities, you can find lists of epithets to them online on places such as Theoi.com, within classical texts such as various Homeric Hymns, epics, histories, etc. Theoi is a great site in general, however it can occasionally lack further explanation and context for epithets so if you find that one isn't clarified enough, try searching it up independently.
Wiktionary.com is actually a really great free resource for looking up etymology and the ways different words are/were used in various languages.
For other languages, check things such as epigraphy [for example, CIL databases (Latin) or this EDH CIL database (across the Roman sphere), RIB databases (Roman Britain), IG databases (Greek)], curse tablets, papyri, etymological dictionaries or regular dictionaries. These can be really useful for obvious reasons. For non-Latin Italic languages and ancient Celtic languages, I tend to use etymological/reconstructed dictionaries this for Celtic languages and this for Etruscan. But again, you can make epithets just in the language you already speak, there's no need for them to be in some ancient or reconstructed one. Its literally whatever you want.
This was originally a blogpost of mine on the P&W Amino but has been reformatted for (and reshared) here since amino is heading towards its inevitable end... rip
