Memoirs of an atom

A blog about World History. And that's all.

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Flint knife with an ivory handle From Sheikh Hamada, Egypt Late Predynastic period, around 3100 BC The 'Pitt-Rivers knife' The flint knives of the late Predynastic period were sometimes mounted in ivory handles. This example, formerly in the collection of Lieutenant-General Pitt-Rivers (1827-1900), is decorated with rows of wild animals carved in raised relief. The animals include elephants, lions, Barbary sheep and cattle. All these could probably be seen in Egypt at the time, and some are shown on a slate palette known as the Hunters' Palette (also from the late Predynastic period). Unlike those on the palette, the animals on this knife handle are arranged in orderly rows. This arrangement is a precursor to artistic convention in the time of the pharaohs, when all figures in a scene were set on a horizontal baseline. It seems probable that, like the Hunters' Palette, this knife was purely ceremonial. The flint blade is flaked on only one side. The small slivers of flint removed by pressure flaking on the front give rise to the term 'ripple-flaked' used to describe this type of blade. In this example, great care has been taken to ensure that the flakes were removed evenly, suggesting that this was for artistic effect more than any functional consideration. This fits with the use of ivory rather than wood for the handle, and the fine carving with which it is decorated.

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Faience tile from the Step Pyramid of Djoser Saqqara, Egypt 3rd Dynasty, around 2650 BC The first Egyptian pyramid The tomb of King Djoser (2630-2611 BC) at Saqqara, known as the Step Pyramid, was the first Egyptian pyramid tomb, and the earliest stone building of its size in the world. It was also the first royal tomb to receive some form of decoration. In a maze of corridors under the pyramid was a room decorated with three panels showing the king engaged in rituals. This tile was one of many which decorated the entrances to this room and others. The rooms and tiled areas were repeated in the 'South Tomb', an underground area in the south part of the complex. The 'South Tomb' was probably a false tomb, built to represent southern Egypt. The blue-green faience tiles were made to resemble the reed matting of the king's palace at Memphis. Furthermore, reeds had symbolic meaning in ancient Egypt; they grew out of the waters from which the world was created. The symbolism of blue-green and faience for creation and rebirth is evident here. Approximately 36,000 tiles of this type were used in these two tomb areas. The tiles are early examples of the use of moulds for manufacture. On the rear are projections and holes; the tiles were perhaps lined up by being threaded together, and then pressed into plaster which held them in place on the walls.

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Diadem of semi-precious stones and gold From the burial of a woman at Abydos, Egypt Naqada II period, around 3250 BC Diadem found on the head of a woman, holding a veil in place over her face The wide red bands of garnet beads of this diadem are flanked by chips of malachite and turquoise, between which are four strands of tiny gold rings. All the materials were locally available in ancient Egypt. Garnet could be found near Aswan, as well as in the Eastern Desert. This semi-precious stone was made into beads until the New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC), when it fell from favour (perhaps due to the small size of the stones). Malachite and turquoise occur near copper deposits, probably found in the Eastern Desert, and also in Sinai. The gold used in the Predynastic period was not mined. Small nuggets of alluvial gold were washed into the valleys of the Eastern Desert by flash floods. A burial containing jewellery made of gold and semi-precious stones does not necessarily indicate that the deceased was of high status, or even wealthy. Apart from the diadem, the burial of this woman at Abydos contained quite ordinary objects including black-topped pots and a coarse flint knife, which was probably funerary in function. It seems that the diadem was the first and only luxury item that the woman acquired. The placing of the most valuable items on the body is consistent with later funerary practice.

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Burnished black-topped redware jar From a tomb at Abydos, Egypt Late Predynastic period, Naqada II, around 3200 BC A container for food for the Afterlife? These black-topped redware jars are characteristic of the finewares of the later Predynastic period. Burials of the late Predynastic period contain vessels of both fine and coarse wares. Even burials in the cemeteries of the poor often contained a black-topped vessel. They were perhaps filled with food for the Afterlife. The pots were made by coiling ropes of clay to build jars, bowls and bottles. The inside and outside of the vessel were smoothed and red ochre slip was applied. This produced a red colour if enough oxygen was available in the kiln. The black top was achieved by placing the vessel upside down in the kiln, so that the ashes of the fuel stopped oxygen reaching the slip. This resulted in a black colour. The vessel was burnished (polished using a hard object, like a pebble) to produce a shiny finish. Archaeological evidence from Hierakonpolis shows that fineware vessels were fired in special kilns, located in the desert valleys close to the source of the clay used to make them. Potters seem to have specialized in either coarse or fine pottery. The 'crescent-thumb' potter, so-called after his maker's mark, produced only coarse ware vessels. He lived and worked close to his clay source, setting out his wares in front of his house.

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Bone figure of a woman From Upper Egypt Early Predynastic period, Naqada I, 4000-3600 BC The earliest three-dimensional representations of humans from ancient Egypt have been found in graves of the Predynastic period (sixth millenium - about 3100 BC). In the majority of cases they were found singly, but groups of up to as many as sixteen have been recorded. This example is one of a type of statue which shows a female figure with the arms either folded below the breasts or hanging down beside the body. Some examples were carved from limestone, but they are mostly of bone or ivory. From their nakedness and from their emphasized sexual organs it has long been assumed that these figures were placed in the grave to act as concubines to the deceased in the Afterlife. However, they have not been exclusively found in burials of men but also of women and children, which suggests that their purpose was more generic. It is now thought that their presence was to provide magical support for the owner's rebirth and regeneration. The large and striking eyes are inlaid with lapis lazuli. The use of this rare material bears witness to the extensive trade network that must have existed in the Near East at this early a date, for the nearest lapis lazuli quarries are to be found in modern-day Afghanistan.

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Crocodile-skin suit of armour Roman, 3rd century AD From near Manfalut, Egypt 'In ancient Egypt the crocodile was seen as sacred and divine, and worshipped as a god, so this suit might have been worn by priests of the crocodile sect who by wearing such a garment would take on the spirit of the deity. In many parts of Africa the crocodile is seen as a fearsome and invincible creature and so I think that by wearing crocodile armour and a headpiece like this, a warrior might be transformed in some magical way and take on the attributes of the animal.' Fowokan George Kelly, of Jamaican origin When the province of Egypt became part of the Roman Empire, it put Romans into direct contact with Egyptian culture and religion. In Egypt Roman garrisons were closely integrated into civic and religious life and participated in local cults. Around Manfalout, on the banks of the Nile in central Egypt, Roman soldiers were particularly attracted to the crocodile cult centred on the sacred grottoes of the region. This imposing armour is made from the skin of a crocodile. It comprises a helmet and cuirass (body armour) and would have been used in military-style ceremonies of the regional crocodile cult. The skin has been radio-carbon dated to the third century AD. It was presented to the British Museum in 1846 by a Mrs Andrews, who was among a group of European travellers to Manfalut who found grottoes containing the mummified remains of humans and animals, including many crocodiles. Although the cold, dry environment of the grotto preserved the suit well, the cuirass in particular was flattened and brittle. It has been painstakingly remoulded by the British Museum's Department of Conservation.

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A poem on papyrus Probably from Memphis, Egypt 19th Dynasty, 1204 BC One of the first pieces of Egyptian literature read by Champollion Jean-François Champollion (1790-1832), the French scholar who first deciphered ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the nineteenth century, based his work on the study of surviving written documents and inscriptions in stone. On his way to visit Egypt for the first time, Champollion visited the collections of François Sallier (1764-1831), a Revenue official in Aix-en-Provence, France. He studied several rolls of papyri there, including this one, which he identified (partly correctly) as 'types of odes or litanies in praise of a Pharaoh'. A note on one sheet states that it was 'stuck onto fourteen squared sheets by Champollion at M. Sallier's in the month of Febuary 1830' on his return from Egypt, two years after he had first viewed the papyrus. The papyrus is one of several purchased by the British Museum in 1839 after Sallier's death. The manuscript is written in hieratic, a cursive form the hieroglyphic script. It contains a junior scribe's copy of a classic poem, The Teaching of King Amenemhat I, written seven centuries earlier. The red dots mark the ends of lines of verse, while the signs in the top margin are the scribe's own corrections. It was written by a treasury scribe called Inena, who copied the papyrus in 'Year 1, month 1 of Winter, day 20' under Sety II (1204 BC).

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Stone mask Teotihuacan culture (150 BC - AD 700) From Mexico A large number of impressive stone masks were produced at Teotihuacan. Although long believed to be funerary masks, none have actually been found in a scientifically excavated burial. Only a handful of stone masks have been found by archaeologists in excavations. They were not placed in tombs but have been found among the public and religious buildings that border the Street of the Dead, a ritual avenue that traversed the city from north to south. Masks in the Teotihuacan style have been a prized item for European and American collectors since the nineteenth century and many have been faked to supply this lucrative market. The abstract, schematic expression and planar geometry of this large mask are typical of the Teotihuacan style. Holes were drilled in the eyes, mouth, ears and sides. The eyes and mouth were probably inlaid with shell, obsidian and/or iron pyrites. Earspools, made of perishable material, may have been originally set in the pierced ears. The cleft head recalls that found on some Olmec objects, such as votive axes.

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Calcite onyx ritual container in the form of a feline Teotihuacan culture (150 BC - AD 750) From Mexico This striking vessel, found at Teotihuacan in 1889, is sculpted in the form of a feline, probably a jaguar. Two cavities carved on its back indicate that it was probably used as a ritual container, perhaps a cuauhxicalli, a vessel for human hearts extracted in ritual sacrifices. Felines are often represented at Teotihuacan in mural paintings, pottery and other media. Jaguars, in particular, were greatly revered by the people of Teotihuacan and other Mesoamerican cultures (for example, Olmec, Maya and Aztec) and were associated with rulership. Mural paintings depicting felines have been found, mainly in apartment compounds but also in some of the buildings bordering the Street of the Dead. One such building, now called the Palace of the Jaguars and located near the Pyramid of the Moon, depicts a procession of jaguars blowing large conch shell trumpets. In many instances, felines are shown in human pose, clothing and even with human body parts. It is possible that these anthropomorphic jaguars are impersonators dressed as felines for certain ceremonies.

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Black limestone mask Teotihuacan style (150 BC - AD 700) From Santiago Ahuizotla, Mexico State, Mexico This stone mask, found in the Basin of Mexico, displays a wide forehead and stylized planar features typical of the Teotihuacan style. Designs are carved on the cheeks, representing facial painting and it was perhaps originally inlaid with shell or other materials. Most similar masks are plain and only a few have remnants of pigment or engraved decoration on cheeks and ears. Different types of stone, such as granite, calcite, serpentine and alabaster, were used to carve Teotihuacan-style masks in varying sizes and proportions. Other regional variations also occur and are widely distributed across Mesoamerica. Several artefacts from Teotihuacan, including masks, were found at the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital. Such objects were probably brought to the capital from different regions as tribute following warfare and conquest. Most masks are heavy and could not have been worn; moreover, the eyes are not pierced. They are believed to be funerary masks, although none have been found in a scientifically excavated burial. They were probably set on a wooden frame and then dressed with elaborate costumes to embody deified ancestors and gods.

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Pottery figurine of a woman holding a dog From Nayarit, West Mexico 300 BC - AD 300 Large, hollow ceramic figures, sitting or standing, are found in shaft-tombs throughout West Mexico. Both male and female representations are found in Nayarit and Jalisco; women are less frequently depicted in the art of Colima. Three broad styles can be recognized in the ceramics of Nayarit. Women, in the style represented by this sculpture, are usually portrayed sitting on a stool, standing or kneeling. They do not wear any clothing but, like this one, wear multiple earrings, a nose ring and armbands. The pattern on her upper arms is common to both Nayarit and Jalisco figurines. With her left hand she holds a plate which rests on her shoulder and a small dog in the crook of her right arm. She is sitting on a two-legged bench. Although most hollow figurines and vessels known from this area have been found in tombs, and were therefore used in a funerary context, they were not made exclusively for that purpose. The wear patterns on some of the containers indicate that they have been used before interral, as could the figures. Other objects used for personal adornment and made of shell, jade and other materials were also found in the burials. These items probably reflect the social status of the deceased.

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Pottery torso of a female From Jalisco, West Mexico 300 BC - AD 300 This Ameca-style figurine represents the torso of a woman wearing a headdress, earplugs and a necklace. Her breasts are covered with a pattern outlined in black pigment, which represents a tattoo or body paint. A band of red slip at the bottom of the figure is part of a skirt, common to this type of figurine. The decoration on the shoulders is also common in Ameca-style sculptures. The majority of figurines known from Jalisco belong to the Ameca style. Both males and females are depicted, usually sitting, with elongated faces and wearing the simple ornaments and clothing seen on this female torso. Standing males warriors are also common. In comparison to the ceramics of Colima and Nayarit, the subject matter in this region is quite limited. Large, hollow figures from Western Mexico have been discovered in shaft tombs, which are not found elsewhere in Mexico, but in Panama and the Andes, particularly in Ecuador and Colombia. Whether this funerary pattern was introduced to Western Mexico from this area or vice versa is still a matter of debate. The presence of species common to both Ecuador and West Mexico, stylistic similarities in ceramic shapes and decoration, and other shared elements seem to indicate maritime contact between these two areas.

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Pottery figures of a drummer and a woman and child Tala-Tonalá style, Jalisco, West Mexico 300 BC - AD 300 At least six styles of ceramic sculptures are found in Jalisco, West Mexico, some of them limited to a specific area or time period. In comparison to the ceramics of Colima and Nayarit though, the subject matter in this region is quite limited. These two sculptures belong to a group commonly called 'sheep-faced' figures, after their pointed noses and ears and elongated heads. The ears are adorned by earplugs. The slip that covers the figures is a glossy red and the details of clothing and ornament are painted in white. Here the woman is wearing earplugs and a necklace, and a typical wrap skirt. The drummer wears the same ornaments and a mantle over one shoulder, characteristic of male figurines. Women usually hold a vessel or cup and men are seen playing musical instruments or holding a variety of objects. Eating, drinking and playing music are also the subject of many scenes represented in ceramic models from the neighbouring Nayarit region. Although these figures are usually presented as a pair, most come from looted shaft tombs and may have been paired at a later date based purely on stylistic similarities.

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Pottery dog From Colima, West Mexico 300 BC - AD 300 This hollow figure represents a dog, the most commonly portrayed animal in the art of Colima. Dogs were believed to assist the dead in their journey to the Underworld. During the sixteenth century, the dog was also a central figure in the myths of creation, according to sources which themselves referred to Colima's ancient inhabitants. The type of dog depicted here is a hairless breed, which was eaten at feasts. The same breed is found in Ecuador and on the coast of Peru and may have been introduced from there to West Mexico. Dogs are not the only animals portrayed in the ceramics of Colima: fauna (ducks, fish, crabs, parrots and serpents, for example), and flora (such as squashes, fruits and cacti) are all realistically represented. Human representations include hunchbacks and dwarfs, musicians playing a variety of instruments, and males holding bowls. Women are rarely depicted. The ceramics of Colima represent a wider diversity of themes and shapes than those of Jalisco and Nayarit, but there is less variety in style. They generally exhibit a great naturalism. Best known are the hollow figures with a glossy slip. Their colour varies from deep red to light orange, although some of them are blackened as a result of the firing process.

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Pottery figure of a warrior From Jalisco, West Mexico 300 BC - AD 300 This sculpture represents a sitting warrior with protective body armour and helmet. Warriors are a common theme in the ceramics of Jalisco. They are shown standing, with knees slightly bent, or sitting. In seated figures, like this example, the legs are shortened and the feet have not been moulded. The weaponry consists of a short club or spear and, sometimes, a shield. The helmet is wide and ends in a crest. The armour, which would probably have been made of a stiff material, perhaps basketry, is shown covering the torso up to the shoulders. The posture of the figure suggests that it could be a tomb guardian. The majority of figures known from Jalisco belong to the Ameca style. Both males and females are depicted, usually sitting, with elongated faces and wearing simple ornaments and clothing. In comparison to the ceramics of Colima and Nayarit, the subject matter of those from Jalisco is quite limited.

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Pottery ancestor figure Zapotec, 200 BC - AD 800 From the Oaxaca Valley, Mexico Offering vessels like this one have been found in the tombs of high-ranking Zapotec lords and noblewomen in the Oaxaca Valley in Mexico. Zapotec nobles were buried in tombs set around the central plaza of their capital at Monte Albán, which was founded in the 6th century BC and flourished between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD. This imposing site was located on the top of a hill with views of the Oaxaca Valley and surrounding mountains. The supporting population, which at its height numbered around 25,000, lived on the terraced slopes in the valley below. Royal ancestor worship was the focus of Zapotec belief and ceremonial practice and the powerful figures depicted on offering vessels - or funerary urns as they are also known - are thought to represent these ancestors rather than deities. The importance of ancestry lies in the Zapotec use of genealogy and ancestral lines to pass on power and wealth. Figures like this have been found inside tombs, positioned alongside bodies, as well as in niches in the walls. They've also been found buried in the floors of ceremonial centres, seemingly as offerings. The figure on this example wears a mask and headdress representing the depicted ancestors' potent supernatural force. The chest ornament features a glyph or sculpted symbol of a day in the 260-day Zapotec ritual calendar. The exact use and purpose of these vessels is unknown. The container, or urn, itself - usually a cylindrical vessel hidden behind the sculpted figure - may simply have been used to hold perishable offerings, as remains have been found inside.

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Pottery female figurine From the Pánuco Valley, Veracruz, Mexico Middle/Late Formative Period, 900 BC - AD 300 Small clay figurines are relatively common throughout Mesoamerica from the Formative period (c. 2400 BC - AD 300) to the sixteenth century. Female figurines dating to the Formative period have been found at sites such as Chupícuaro in West Mexico, Tlatilco in the Central Highlands and El Prisco and Pánuco in the northern Gulf Lowlands, to name a few. Most figurines found in archaeological excavations in Mesoamerica come from households or refuse areas, although they have occasionally been found in burials and caches. They are usually modelled by hand, with incised decoration used to outline features. The elongated torsos often contrast with the round lower part of the body. Like most of the figurines, this example appears in the nude with incised eyes, mouth, hair, navel and sexual attributes. The elongated head may indicate cranial deformation, a common practice in the Gulf Coast which later extended to the Central Highlands. The figurines are sometimes painted with mineral and vegetable pigments. Body ornaments such as earplugs, necklaces and bracelets, are rendered using an appliqué technique. The cultural chronology of the northern Gulf Lowlands is not yet well defined, but similar female figurines have been found at El Prisco that have been attributed to the Middle/Late Formative period.