neurotransmitters are so interesting I could study them for days ~
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@noveii
neurotransmitters are so interesting I could study them for days ~
Could you explain how antidepressants work, specifically SSRIs. I know they increase seretonin levels in the brain but how does that work?
Yes of course! So SSRI is an abreviation for Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor. Prozac is probably the most well known example of an SSRI medication used to treat depression, anxiety, eating disorders and sometimes PTSD.
To understand how SSRIs work, we first need to look at where it takes effect. SSRIs work in your synapses; the gaps between neurones where neurotransmitters diffuse across to send a signal. And as I am oh so nice I’ve a made a some diagrams to explain:
Structure of A Synapse:
As you can see, when an impulse travels along the first neurone (known as the presynaptic neurone), it is stimulated to release neurotransmitters, in this case serotonin, across the gap (known as the synaptic cleft). These neurotransmitters then move by diffusion across the gap and bind to their receptors on the next neurone, known as the post-synaptic neurone. If enough neurotransmitter binds in a given time, the signal will then be carried down through that neurone (keyword here is enough; there is a threshold and if that is not met/exceeded, NO impulse AT ALL will be generated in the postsynaptic neurone). Since serotonin is a neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of wellbeing, this resulting impulse promotes a generally good mood. However, serotonin tends to lack in those with depression which means it is harder for them to generate such impulses (as it is harder to meet the threshold). So how do SSRIs fit in and work to compensate for this?
The Process Of Reuptake
You’ll remember SSRI stands for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, in other words it stops serotonin from being absorbed back into the neurone it came from. This process is called reuptake. Reuptake happens through channels like the one shown in pink, where the serotonin molecules pass through so they can be used by the neurone again for the next impulse.
The Action Of SSRIs
What the SSRI does is block this reuptake channel, which leaves more serotonin in the synaptic cleft. As a result, more serotonin can bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neurone which creates a stronger signal more likely to exceed the threshold. The overall result is that the feelings of sadness and emptiness that are caused by depression are counteracted by the increased effect of serotonin.
GABA
γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter known to counterbalance the action of excitatory glutamate, and is responsible for at least 40% of inhibitory synaptic processing throughout the central nervous system (CNS) (Bowery and Smart, 2006).
Binds to transmembrane receptors
Initiates the opening of ion channels
allowing either Cl- ions to flow into the cell, or K+ ions to flow out.
This results in a negative change in the transmembrane potential, and usually consequent hyperpolarization. Hyperpolarization increases the threshold which must be reached before firing, in turn reducing the probability of action potential initiation, and causing neuronal inhibition.
Due to the wide distribution and utilization of GABA, early GABAergic drugs had very generalized effects on CNS function. More recently, at least two distinct classes of GABA receptor, GABAA and GABAB, have been identified (Olsen and DeLorey, 1999).
GABAB receptors
G protein-coupled
indirectly link to K+ channels
can decrease Ca2+ conductance and inhibit cAMP production
via intracellular mechanisms linked to their G protein.
The GABAA receptor
exists as part of a larger, ligand gated macromolecular complex
with five major binding domains for a variety of neurotransmitters.
GABA also has roles outside of the CNS, which made it difficult initially to define as a neurotransmitter. It is secreted in pancreatic β-cells, where it binds to GABA receptors on the neighbouring islet α-cells. This inhibits them from secreting glucagon, which would counteract the effect of the insulin produced by the β-cells (Rorsman et al., 1989). GABA has also been detected in many peripheral tissues, and immune cells can express receptors for GABA.
Neurotransmitters
Central nervous system
Glutamate
GABA
Glycine
Dopamine
Serotonin
Noradrenaline
Histamine
Orexin
Endorphins
Peripheral nervous system
Noradrenaline
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter synthesis/packaging
Some neurotransmitters are readily available amino acids eg Glutamate, glycine
Some are synthesised by the cells that secrete them eg GABA, noradrenaline, dopamine
Noradrenaline synthesis:
Packaging
In the presynapse, neurotransmitter is contained in vesicles
The neurotransmitter must be packaged into the vesicle ready for release
Uses transporters and proton gradients to package
[packaging and release - above]
Neurotransmitter release is quantal – Each vesicle contains the same amount of neurotransmitter
Therefore it is the number of vesicles fusing which determines the post synaptic potentials
membranes must fuse for release - membrane fusion is energetically unfavourable so must be catalysed by something
SNARE Hypothesis
Proteins on the presynaptic membrane ‘grab’ proteins on the vesicle membrane
These SNARE proteins pull the two membranes close together
SNARE proteins provide most of the energy for membrane fusion
v-SNARE (VAMP2) – on vesicle membrane
t-SNAREs (syntaxin1A, SNAP-25) on target membrane
Bind together to make SNARE complex
SNARE ‘zippering’ forces the membranes close together
Spontaneous, highly energetically favourable
Once assembled, they require ATP hydrolysis to separate them
Ca2+ binding to synaptotagmin provides extra energy to fuse the membranes
Neurotransmitter release
synaptic vesicle release sites are highly organised and regulated
exocytose into synaptic cleft
presynaptic active zone:
Neurotransmitter detection
Ionotropic (ion channel coupled) – Glutamate, GABA, Glycine
Metabotropic (G-protein coupled) – monoamines, histamine etc.
Some have both kinds, e.g. glutamate, GABA
Ionotropic responses are faster
Metabotropic responses can have more diverse effects
Glutamate receptors
Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
Three classes of ionotropic receptor – AMPA – NMDA – Kainate
Named after pharmacological agonists
All let in positive ions when they bind glutamate
Glutamate also has a family of metabotropic receptors – mGluRs – These modulate neurotransmission
AMPA Receptors
Main fast excitatory receptor
Strength of a synapse is largely determined by its complement of AMPARs
More AMPAR in the post-synaptic membrane = stronger synaptic transmission
NMDA Receptors
Minor role in postsynaptic firing
Major role is in synaptic plasticity
NMDA receptors are calcium permeable
require strong neurotransmitter release to open
09.07.20 | i really liked these pens my friend had, but neither of us knew what brand they were since the label wasn't in english. as a surprise, last week he gave me one!! it writes like a dream, but i need better paper. (an excuse to buy a new notebook? no, no, i would never!!)
ft. some frantic thesis preparation notes
Some general resources:
Chemistry Glossary
Chemistry Exam Survival Guide
Toolbox – interactive graphing, tables, and calculators
Make virtual chemistry models
Interactive periodic table
Another site for making virtual chemistry models
Virtual labs – covers stoichiometry, thermochemistry, eq1uilibrium, acid base chemistry, solubility, oxidation/reduction and electrochemistry, analytical chemistry/lab techniques
Concept tests
Chemistry Science Fair Project Ideas
OChem Reaction Bank
Interactive chem simulations
Chemical calculations
The Chem Blog
Molecule of the day
Free chemistry drawing software
Laboratory Safety - Laboratory safety for the chemistry classroom
Periodic Table of Videos - Brady Haran
On this day in chemistry… - a history of chemistry
The faces of chemistry
Experimentation hub - explore and enjoy our experiments to increase engagement in scientific investigation, develop new skills and enhance your knowledge.
Understanding journals - including reading articles, referencing, and example articles.
Resources for specific topics:
Stochiometry – the mole, molarity and density, reaction stoichiometry and limiting reagents, empirical formula and mixtures, gravimetric analysis
Themochemistry – energy and enthalpy, entropy
Kinetics – phenomenological and mechanistic kinetics
Equilibrium – LeChatlier’s principle, progress of reaction, equilibrium calculations, common ion effect
Acid base chemistry – strong acid and bases, weak acids and bases, buffer solutions, acid/base titrations
Solubility – solubility product, solubility and PH, common ion effect
Oxidation/Reduction and Electrochemistry – standard reduction potentials, galvanic cells
Analytical chemistry/ Lab techniques – reaction stoichiometry and limiting reagents, acid/base titrations, redox titrations, gravimetric analysis, UC/Vis spectroscopy
Physical chemistry – quantum mechanics, spectroscopy
Properties of solutions – intermolecular forces, colligative properties
Textbooks:
Chemistry Virtual Textbooks, Stephen Lower
Organic Chemistry, Tim Soderberg
Organic Chemistry I, George Mhehe
Environmental Chemistry, Dejene Tessema
Virtual Organic Chemistry
Industrial Chemistry, Helen Njenga
Inorganic Chemistry, Chrispin Kowenje
Physical Chemistry I, Onesmus Munyaki
General Chemistry, Principles, Patterns and Applications
Chemistry Books - a variety of chemistry textbooks
Chemistry Tutorials/Guides:
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Chemical reactions and stoichiometry
Electronic structure of atoms
Periodic table
Chemical bonds
Gases and kinetic molecular theory
State of matter and intermolecular forces
Chemical equilibrium
Acids and bases
Acid base equilibria and solubility equilibria
Thermodynamics
Redox reactions and electrochemistry
Kinetics
Nuclear chemistry
Organic Chemistry Tutorials/Guidelines:
Structure and bonding
Dot structures
Hybridization
Bond-line structures
Electronegativity
Resonance and acid base chemistry
Counting electrons
Resonance structures
Organic acid-base chemistry
Alkanes, cycloalkanes and functional groups
Naming alkanes
Naming alkanes, cycloalkanes, and bicyclic compounds
Conformations of alkanes
Conformations of cycloalkanes
Functional groups
Stereochemistry
Chirality
Enantiomers
Stereoisomeric relationships
Subsituation and elimination reactions
Free radical reaction
Sn1 vs Sn2
Nucleophilicity and basicity
Elimination reactions
Sn1/Sn2/E1/E2
Sn1 and Sn2
Alkenes and alkynes
Naming alkenes
Alkene reactions
Alkene nomenclature
Alkene reactions
Naming and preparing alkynes
Alkyne reactions
Alcohols, ethers, epoxides, sulphides
Alcohol nomenclature and properties
Synthesis of alcohols
Reactions of alcohols
Nomenclature and properties of ethers
Synthesis and cleavage of ethers
Nomenclature and preparation of epoxides
Conjugation, Diels-Alder, and MO theory
Addition reactions of conjugated dienes
Diels-Alder reaction
Molecular orbital theory
Aromatic compounds
Naming benzene derivatives
Reactions of benzene
Aromatic stability
Electrophilic aromatic substitution
Directing effects
Other reactions and synthesis
Aldehydes and ketones
Introduction to aldehydes and ketones
Reactions of aldehydes and ketones
Carboxylic acids and derivatives
Naming carboxylic acids
Formation of carboxylic acid derivatives
Nomenclature and reactions of carboxylic acids
Nomenclature and reactions of carboxylic acid derivatives
Alpha carbon chemistry
Formation of enolate anions
Aldol condensations
Amines
Naming amines
Spectroscopy
Infrared Spectroscopy
UV/Vis Spectroscopy
proton NMR
Careers:
A future in Chemistry
What can I do with my chemistry degree?
Chemistry Careers - American Chemical Society
What to do with a degree in chemistry - The Guardian
Follow my studyblr here
hey friends!! i’m starting to get a lot of requests about chemistry and since i recently started studying the basics of chemistry i wanted to help all of you [and myself] out by making a chemistry masterpost, so here it is :]
studying chem
how 2 study general chemistry
ten ways to pass ur next chem exam
chem study hints
tips for studying chemistry
lecture notes
ap chem notes
how 2 write notes
fun stuff kinda??
the periodic table of elements
fun thing about moles
learn about women in chemistry!!!!
chemistry timeline
books + things
best chem books on amazon
best chem books on goodreads
for general readers
for the college student
links + website resources
crash course: chemistry
chemistry on khanacademy
sparknotes chemistry
chem collective
royal society of chemistry
high school chem
careers in chemistry
what can i do with a degree in chemistry?
a future in chemistry
why study chemistry?
my masterposts
notes, studying, and self-study resources
self-study resources
supplies
igcse resources
improving your handwriting
how to studyblr
literature masterpost
organisation
aesthetically pleasing notes
annotating
studying a foreign language
really great apps
math
college + uni
motivation
biology
space!!!!
+ more
hope this helps you all <3 good luck fellow chemistry students + i hope you get where you truly want in life!!! if you wish to talk to me or request a masterpost, just message me!!
you know, life doesn’t have to be competitive. you don’t have to get in the very best university; you don’t have to get the highest paying career there is. you don’t need to compare and compete with everyone else in the world. you need to do what’s right for you. you need to relax, take a breath, and say ‘what do i want, for myself, to live as i want to’. and, if that involves high ambitions, then that’s fine. because you chose those ambitions on what you desire as an individual, and not on what is expected in order to succeed. let’s be ourselves this year.
self discipline tips
here are tips I discovered very recently:
something is better than nothing. 5 minutes of work are better than zero. Just because you missed something on your schedule doesn’t mean you can’t still work on it, even for 5 minutes. Grow and build on this.
second drafts / reviews can be done after.
Don’t think you are going to do your very best work on the first try. Take the weight of perfectionism off your shoulders.
don’t think about doing it. just do it as fast as you can.
build on your productivity, not your failures.
If you come from a past of procrastinating and now feel motivated to change and discipline yourself, do NOT try to do everything at once.
if you have a set of different goals to accomplish, begin with the most important one. Wait until the rotine of working for that one settles in (you feel productive and comfortable-ish), and then begin with the next. Repeat.
this way you’ll be building your way up and not juggling everything at the same time, hoping everything works out.
be patient with yourself, you’ll get there!
set smaller deadlines for your goals
have monthly and weekly-ish deadlines
e.g. if you are doing a project, due 22nd Feb, set personal deadlines, like have Introduction written by 2nd Feb, have Methods written by 10th Feb, have project complete by 18th Feb.
take them as seriously as you possibly can, don’t miss out on yourself.
write realistic daily tasks and don’t stop until you finish them. after them you can do whatever you want
on writing realistic daily tasks, the secret is knowing you can only do so much in one day, but trusting you can accomplish everything in the course of any period of time (a week, or 2 weeks or a month, etc.) because you will combine the work from all these different days.
it’s very tempting to write down all the tasks you need to accomplish in one day to just get over with it, but the real deal is you won’t accomplish half of them. You’ll feel very unproductive then, wich leads to demotivation.
spread daily tasks in the time necessary.
have a consistent sleep schedule.
if your mind isn’t ready everything will fall apart.
have one rest day per week where you plan nothing, do whatever you want except studying. this can be harder than you expect!
(don’t forget these are effective only if you actually put them into practice! good luck babes!!)
apply for jobs you’re not qualified for! audit upper-level classes! get drunk with your TAs! see that poster advertising that lecture series? go there take notes and ask questions! thank the presenter for talking about this topic you love! if the class is full before you register, email the professor and ask if they can squeeze you in! RAISE YOUR HAND! tell the disability accomodation office to do their goddamn job! ask for help! file complaints! go to class in your pajamas and destroy the reading! you got this! you KNOW you got this! be arrogant enough to learn EVERYTHING! take your meds! punch a velociraptor in the dick! fear is useless and temporary! glory is forever! shed your skin and erupt angel wings! help out! spread your sun!
i had a really good morning! you deserve a really good morning! kill anyone who says you don’t and build a throne from their bones!
Oddly inspiring
How to Learn More in Less Time, tips by academiix
It’s never too late to start being who you want to be
Ellsworth Kelly, Green from the series Line Form Color, 1951
stop overthinking. stop being so scared about being outside your comfort zone. just say yes. live a little. experience new things. that’s the only way you’ll grow.
Shifting through that sweetly fragrant memory // Part 13
“But how could you live and have no story to tell?”
— Fyodor Dostoyevsky, White Nights (via larmoyante)