Cognitive Developmental Theory
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Scholar Howard Gardner of Harvard University questioned the dominance of intelligence as a single, in born capacity assessed by IQ tests. Instead, he raised the question of how the brain/mind evolved over the course of time to allow the species to survive.
Gardner completed cross-cultural studies of those who are gifted, autistic, and savants, which resulted in his identification of 9 forms of intelligence:
Linguistic (writing; language)
Logical-Mathematical (science; math)
Musical (composer; performer)
Spatial (sailor; architect)
Bodily-kinesthetic (athlete; dancer; surgeon)
Interpersonal (therapist; salesperson)
Intrapersonal (keen introspective skills)
Naturalist (recognize & classify patterns of the natural world)
Existential (spiritual world)
These types of intelligences are present in every culture and every individual is talented in some of these intelligences and may have little capacity in others.
An application of Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences would be for educators to allow learner the opportunities to engage in material using one of the multiple intelligences. For example, in teaching math, learners can using their body to form different numbers (kinesthetic), write a song or poem to solve a problem (musical), or use play dough to create geometric angles (spatial).
Using Multiple Intelligences learning choices make adult learners more confident about taking greater control of their own learning.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget laid the foundation for much of what we know about cognitive development. Piaget proposed four age related stages of cognitive development:
2-7 years old (pre-operational stage)
7-11 years old (concrete operational stage)
12+ years old (formal operational stage)
He first thought the fourth stage was obtained between 11-13, but revised this saying the development of formal operational thought may occur up to the age of 20.
If these four stages are thought of as playing with a pack of cards:
Infants would take hold of some cards and likely put them into their mouths
4 year olds would sort the cards into patterns such as kings, queens, jacks, etc.
10 year olds would play a simple card game
Young adults could play a sophisticated card game like poker or bridge
Piaget has been critiqued for the invariance of his model as well as lack of consideration for context, however, his theory did provide the foundation for work around cognitive development.
A model which has been heavily influenced by Piaget is Perry’s stages of moral and ethical development which is most often associated with young adults.
Perry’s Model of Intellectual Development
Source: https://www2.palomar.edu/pages/tjohnston2/files/2019/03/11-Perrys-Stages-of-Cognitive-Development.pdf
The model was developed in the 1960's by William Perry, an educational psychologist at Harvard, who observed that students varied considerably in their attitudes toward courses and instructors and their own roles in the learning process.
The Perry model is a hierarchy of nine levels grouped into four categories:
Dualism (Levels 1 and 2). Knowledge is black and white, every problem has one and only one correct solution, the authority (in school, the teacher) has all the solutions, and the job of the student is to memorize and repeat them. Dualists want facts and formulas and don't like theories or abstract models, open-ended questions, or active or cooperative learning ("I'm paying tuition for him to teach me, not to teach myself.") At Level 2, students begin to see that some questions may seem to have multiple answers but they still believe that one of them must be right.
Multiplicity (Levels 3 and 4). Some questions may not have answers now but the answers will eventually be known (Level 3) or responses to some (or most) questions may always remain matters of opinion (Level 4). Open-ended questions and cooperative learning are tolerated, but not if they have too much of an effect on grades. Students start using supporting evidence to resolve issues rather than relying completely on what authorities say, but they count preconceptions and prejudices as acceptable.
Relativism (Levels 5 and 6). Students in relativism see that knowledge and values depend on context and individual perspective rather than being externally and objectively based, as Level 1-4 students believe them to be. Using real evidence to reach and support conclusions becomes habitual and not just something professors want them to do. At Level 6, they begin to see the need for commitment to a course of action even in the absence of certainty, basing the commitment on critical evaluation rather than on external authority.
Commitment within relativism (Levels 7-9). At the highest category of the Perry model, individuals start to make actual commitments in personal direction and values (Level 7), evaluate the consequences and implications of their commitments and attempt to resolve conflicts (Level 8), and finally acknowledge that the conflicts may never be fully resolved and come to terms with the continuing struggle (Level 9). These levels are rarely reached by college students.
The key to helping students move up this developmental scale is to provide an appropriate balance of challenge and support, occasionally posing problems one or two levels above the students' current position.
Kegan’s Constructive Developmental Theory
Source: https://medium.com/@NataliMorad/how-to-be-an-adult-kegans-theory-of-adult-development-d63f4311b553
Kegan, a former Harvard psychologist, shows that adults go through 5 distinct developmental stages.
Stage 1 — Impulsive mind (early childhood)
Stage 2 — Imperial mind (adolescence, 6% of the adult population)
Stage 2 individuals view people as a means to get their own needs met, as opposed to a shared internal experience (how we feel about each other). They care about how others perceive them, but only because those perceptions may have concrete consequences for them. For example, when Stage 2 friends do not lie to each other, it is because of a fear of the consequences or retaliation, not because they value honesty and transparency in a relationship. Moreover, individuals follow along with rules, philosophies, movements or ideologies because of external rewards or punishments, not because they truly believe in them. For example, a person in Stage 2 won’t cheat because they’re scared of the consequences, not because it goes against their personal values.
Stage 3 — Socialized mind (58% of the adult population)
In Stage 3, external sources shape our sense of self and understanding of the world. In Stage 3, the most important things are the ideas, norms and beliefs of the people and systems around us (i.e. family, society, ideology, culture, etc. ). For the first time we begin to experience ourselves as a function of how others experience us. For example, we take an external view of our ourselves (“They’ll think I look stupid”) and make it part of our internal experience (“I am stupid”).
Stage 4 — Self-Authoring mind (35% of the adult population)
In Stage 4, we can define who we are, and not be defined by other people, our relationships or the environment. We understand that we are a person, with thoughts, feelings and beliefs that are independent from the standards and expectations of our environment. We can now distinguish the opinions of others from our own opinions to formulate our own “seat of judgment”. We become consumed with who we are — this is the kind of person I am, this is what I stand for. We develop an internal sense of direction and the capacity to create and follow our own course.
Stage 5 — Self-Transforming mind (1% of the adult population)
In Stage 5 one’s sense of self is not tied to particular identities or roles, but is constantly created through the exploration of one’s identities and roles and further honed through interactions with others. We see the complexities of life, can expand who we are and be open to other possibilities — we are reinventing our identity. We understand the intersectionality of multiple identities.
Most adults (65%) never make it past stage 3 to become high functioning adults.
Drago-Severson’s Four Ways of Knowing
Source: https://learnertoolbox.com/2015/04/23/professional-development-and-ways-of-knowing/
Drago-Severson (2009) cites Kegan’s work on developmental stages of adult development, suggesting that adults have stages of development directly influence how they learn and engage. Unlike Kegan, Drago-Severson views development as cyclicar and not simply linear.
Instrumental learning - Concrete tasks that are personally relevant require adults to work at instrumental levels. Learning a new subject guide, for instance, is a necessary concrete task. Instrumental learners appreciate guidance in knowing how to apply the principles in a subject guide to their own classroom.
Socializing learners - Collaborative planning and reflection is a social task. Perhaps collaborative planning, for instance on interdisciplinary units and subject overviews help social learners to feel psychologically safe that all in the group are tuned in to the same task with similar goals.
Self-authoring learners - Self-authoring individuals appreciate clear vision underlining tasks. They appreciate opportunities to evaluate for themselves (self-reflection) what they might learn from collaborative situations. They might seek to augment and enhance their own learning through self-chosen PLNs and focus groups.
Self-transformational learners - Transformational learners have the ability to tolerate ambiguity during times systems are incomplete or in progress. They see connections between systems in place to abstractions, paradoxes, and changing continuums.
In this model, feedback plays a critical role. Additionally, learners need a holding environment to move through the various stages.
Source: https://www2.palomar.edu/pages/tjohnston2/files/2019/03/11-Perrys-Stages-of-Cognitive-Development.pdf
The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind “All women grow up having to deal with historically and culturally engrained definitions of femininity and womanhood…” (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule, 1986). A woman does not think or reason like a man nor does she look at those in authority the same way due to her experiences and interactions with parents, culture, and her economic situation. The parental aspect is complex, leading into religious and moral issues along with physical, sexual, and mental abuse. Belenky et al. (1986) conducted a project in the late 1970’s based on the study and analysis of topics and aspects unique to women revealing a model of intellectual development. Overview of Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule Model:
Silence: A woman of silence is totally dependent on those in authority, not questioning or voicing an opinion (Belenky et al., 1986). Expressing her personal thoughts is very difficult as she lives in the present and normally speaks of specific concrete behaviors. A woman of silence usually has experienced physical, mental, or sexual abuse and feels that she is to be seen and not heard. If she should voice her opinion or ask a question, punishment is the most likely result. A woman of silence views decisions as either right or wrong with no room for reasoning.
Received Knowledge: Belenky et al. (1986) places a woman at the receiving knowledge level if she is listening but does not have the confidence to voice her opinion. As the receiver she will listen and pass knowledge on to others, shaping her thoughts to match those in authority. When asked about herself, the receiver of knowledge will reply with what other individuals have stated, unable to voice her feelings. Abuse is still prevalent in the life of a woman receiving knowledge.
Subjective Knowledge: About half of those participating in the project were at the subjective knowledge level (Belenky et al., 1986). Something usually happens in a woman’s life to encourage her to go from a receiver of knowledge to progress to the level of subjectivity. The woman begins to accept that she has a voice, “an inner source of strength” lying within herself, and an opinion that is due to past experiences. She recognizes that she does not have to agree with the authority but is still cautious about voicing opinions. Truth is experienced within oneself but not acted upon for fear of jeopardizing the associations one has with others at the same level.
Procedural Knowledge: Belenky et al. (1986) describes procedural knowledge as divided into two areas, separate and connected knowing. A woman in either area realizes that she has voice, is still cautious of others and their actions, however now she is not threatened and is more willing to listen to what is being said. A separatist will not project her feelings into a situation and is able to speak taking on the requested view. A connected knower empathizes with others and feels it is her responsibility to help them understand their situation so they might make the best decision.
Constructed Knowledge: A constructivist realizes that one must speak, listen, share ideas, explore, and question, analyzing who, why, and how (Belenky et al., 1986). Speaking and listening does not remain within oneself but includes speaking and listening to others at the same time. She wants a better quality of life for herself and for others.
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