The Hanzhong Campaign
One of the most storied campaigns of the Three Kingdoms era, the Hanzhong Campaign is also one of the ones most obscured by fictionalization and misrepresentation. It was the high point of Liu Bei’s career, and it ended with Shu at its maximal extent. Although the state would soon be reduced dramatically by the loss of Jing province, it would continue to hold Hanzhong until its conquest by Wei in 263.
The struggle for Hanzhong began in 217. Fa Zheng discussed matters with Liu Bei and noted that while Cao Cao subjugated Zhang Lu quickly (in 215), he didn't follow up on this momentum. Instead, he left Xiahou Yuan to defend the region and returned home. Fa Zheng believed that rather than this being evidence that Cao Cao's army lacked strength, it meant that Cao Cao was concerned elsewhere. On that assumption, Fa Zheng believed it would be possible to defeat Xiahou Yuan and claim Hanzhong, which would greatly strengthen Liu Bei's power. From there, they could slowly claim parts of Yong and Liang to expand, or at least hold a firm position in Hanzhong to preserve their state.[1] Previously, the official Huang Quan offered a similar suggestion.[2]
Two mystics named Zhou Qun and Zhang Yu predicted that the campaign would be, at most, halfway successful.[3] Liu Bei disregarded their warnings and accepted Fa Zheng's argument. Fa Zheng accompanied the army as Liu Bei's chief adviser.[4]
The army mobilized in 218, with Liu Bei sending two generals named Wu Lan and Lei Tong to capture Wudu. Liu Bei himself camped at Yangping with his main army.[5] Zhang Fei and Ma Chao were sent to support this force. In response, Cao Cao dispatched an army under Cao Hong to deal with them.[6] With Cao Hong were Cao Zhen[7] and Xin Pi,[8] with Cao Xiu serving as Cao Hong’s lead adviser. Zhang Fei camped at Gushan and made it known that he intended to cut off Cao Hong's army from the rear. However, Cao Xiu reasoned that if Zhang Fei was actually going to do that, he would advance in secret. He surmised that Zhang Fei's actions were a feint and that Wu Lan should be dealt with quickly. Cao Hong followed Cao Xiu's advice and attacked Wu Lan at Xiaban. Wu Lan was soundly defeated. Zhang Fei and Ma Chao retreated.[9] In the battle at Xiaban, Wu Lan’s general Ren Kai was killed. Wu Lan himself fled to the local tribes, where a leader called Qiangduan executed him. He then sent the head to Cao Cao as a token of submission. Zhang Fei and Ma Chao rejoined Liu Bei in Hanzhong.[10]
During the operations in Wudu, the battle in Hanzhong continued. Liu Bei and Xiahou Yuan fought repeatedly throughout the year.[11] One of the most important of these clashes was between Xu Huang and Liu Bei’s general Chen Shi. Chen Shi was dispatched with a large division to cut off Mamingge Road, but Xu Huang intercepted him and easily defeated him. Chen Shi’s soldiers were so thoroughly beaten that many attempted to escape by throwing themselves into the valleys, resulting in many deaths.[12] Another clash took place between Liu Bei and Zhang He, who was camped at Guangshi. Liu Bei attempted a night raid on Zhang He’s position, but Zhang He fended him off.[13]
Meanwhile, Cao Cao gathered a large army and slowly made his way towards Hanzhong. He began mobilizing in early autumn. By the end of the season, he reached Chang’an, where he halted.[14]
As the year turned, the campaign started to go in Liu Bei’s favor. He began by advancing from Yangping, across the Mian River, and taking up a position at Mount Dingjun. Xiahou Yuan brought his soldiers to nearby Zouma Valley to oppose him.[15] Zhang He appears to have joined him there. In the night, Liu Bei dispatched men to set fire to Xiahou Yuan’s camp. Xiahou Yuan sent Zhang He to defend the eastern side, while he personally commanded the southern defenses. Zhang He found himself struggling against Liu Bei’s attack, so Xiahou Yuan sent half of his soldiers to reinforce Zhang He, defending the south with a limited force.[16] Fa Zheng observed the army’s movements and determined that Liu Bei could strike a decisive blow against Xiahou Yuan.[17] Huang Zhong led the advance and struck Xiahou Yuan from the high ground. Xiahou Yuan was killed in the attack, along with one Zhao Yu, who Cao Cao had appointed as nominal Inspector of Yi.[18] Xiahou Yuan’s 13-year-old son Xiahou Rong was with him. He refused to abandon his father when the attack came and was also killed in battle.[19]
At that time, Xiahou Yuan’s major was Guo Huai. He was ill at the time of the battle, so he did not participate. As a result, he was not killed along with Xiahou Yuan. He collected the remnants of Xiahou Yuan’s army and led them to Zhang He, who became their commander.[20] Zhang He rallied the troops and set their defenses in order, soothing the panic that had set in at Xiahou Yuan’s death.[21]
Liu Bei sought to follow up on his victory the very next day by forcing a crossing of the Han river. The assorted generals wanted to meet Liu Bei at the river itself, but Guo Huai believed that would show their weakness and would not be sufficient to halt Liu Bei’s advance. Instead, he suggested taking a position some distance from the river so that Liu Bei would have to cross to fight them. They could then strike while the river divided his army. Zhang He followed this advice. Liu Bei observed the situation and, perceiving Guo Huai’s plan, did not advance.[22]
The situation remained at a stalemate for the next several months. Cao Cao sent Cao Zhen ahead of his main army to reinforce the defenders. He joined with Xu Huang, and together they defeated one of Liu Bei’s divisions under Gao Xiang.[23] Cao Cao himself mobilized in the third month of the year, marching from Chang’an to Xie valley, following the border of Hanzhong before entering it near Yangping. Rather than march forth to meet Cao Cao, Liu Bei simply maintained his defensive position.[24]
Appended to the SGZ biography of Fa Zheng is an account of his heroism in one particular skirmish. However, the source of this story is unclear so its authenticity cannot be verified. Accordingly: One of these defensive battles went poorly for Liu Bei. He found himself in a bad position and needed to retreat, but Liu Bei stubbornly refused to do so. His attendants dared not insist upon it even though their position was sustaining heavy fire from arrows. Fa Zheng came forward and stood in front of Liu Bei. Liu Bei warned him to avoid the arrows, and Fa Zheng responded by pointing out that Liu Bei himself wasn’t doing so. Liu Bei was thus persuaded to retreat.[25]
Another dubious account of the battles during this time comes from the Zhao Yun Biezhuan. The author of this work is unknown and it contains a number of factual errors and contradictions, so the accuracy of any given passage is subject to doubt. Nevertheless: Huang Zhong led a detachment to intercept a supply convoy bound for Cao Cao’s camp. Zhao Yun became concerned when Huang Zhong did not return when expected, so he took a small force to locate him. He soon came upon Cao Cao’s main army. Zhao Yun did battle with Cao Cao’s vanguard, who quickly received a large influx of reinforcements, forcing Zhao Yun to retreat. Though surrounded, Zhao Yun broke through the encirclement. However, his subordinate Zhang Zhu was injured and left behind, so Zhao Yun fought his way back through to rescue him. They then returned to Zhao Yun’s camp, pursued by Cao Cao’s main army. Realizing that he could not win such a battle, Zhao Yun attempted a deception. He ordered that the gates be opened, the flags be removed, and the drums quieted. When Cao Cao arrived at the camp, he suspected an ambush and retreated instead of attacking. As Cao Cao was retreating, Zhao Yun attacked, killing many of Cao Cao’s soldiers.[26]
The ZYBZ passage says that Zhao Yun’s camp was also defended by Zhang Yi 张翼 and incorrectly names him as the sheriff 长 of Mianyang 沔阳. Zhang Yi’s biography[27] says that he was made sheriff of Jiangyang around 219. 江阳. There can be no doubt that Mianyang is an error for Jiangyang.
Aside from these two suspect accounts, little is recorded of the fighting between Cao Cao and Liu Bei. During this time, Cao Cao sent Cao Zhen to Wudu, where he recalled Cao Hong and had him take up a fallback position at Chencang.[28] During the next two months, many soldiers defected from Cao Cao’s army. Ultimately, he was unable to dislodge Liu Bei and decided to retreat.[29] He began leading the army back to Chang’an in the fifth month of the year.[30]
Cao Cao worried that Liu Bei would join with the Di tribes in Wudu and threaten the west. His inspector of Yong, Zhang Ji, advised him to relocate the tribes of the region. He suggested encouraging the tribes to move north to help harvest that year’s crop, offering generous rewards to those who arrived first. Cao Cao approved of this plan and sent Zhang Ji to Wudu. He subsequently relocated fifty thousand people.[31] Around this time, Cao Cao sent Zhang He to join Cao Hong at Chencang, fortifying his defenses there.[32]
When Cao Cao initially took Hanzhong in 215, he made some rearrangements. The eastern counties of Anyang and Xicheng became a new commandery called Xicheng. Xi county became the new commandery of Shangyong.[33] At some time, Cao Cao also established the commandery of Fangling in the area.[34] After Liu Bei conquered Yi in 214, Fa Zheng’s friend Meng Da was made executor of Yidu, with his headquarters at Zigui.[35]
Following Cao Cao’s retreat from Hanzhong, Liu Bei sought to secure the eastern portion of the region. He sent Li Yan, Liu feng, and Meng Da to attack Shangyong.[36] Meng Da advanced north from Zigui and attacked Fangling, where he killed the local administrator Kuai Qi. Liu Bei worried that he couldn’t trust Meng Da, so he ordered Liu Feng to join him in attacking Shangyong. As the two armies converged on the city, the local administrator Shen Dan surrendered, sending his family to Liu Bei as hostages. Shen Dan was allowed to keep his position and his brother Shen Yi was made executor of Xicheng.[37]
With this, Liu Bei was in complete control of the entire Hanzhong region. The end of the campaign was followed with rewards and promotions all around, with Liu Bei himself taking the title King of Hanzhong. Shu was never more powerful than it was in that moment.
This success was short-lived. Only months later, Guan Yu would begin a disastrous campaign that would end with Shu losing control of Jing province entirely. Efforts to retake portions of Jing in 221 and 222 were unsuccessful, and Shu would never again hold territory beyond the traditional borders of Yi province. In 220, Meng Da would defect to Wei, taking eastern Hanzhong with him. The western half of the region, however, would remain in Shu’s hands for the rest of its existence, serving as a defensive bulwark that would turn back Wei in 230 and 244. On those occasions, the state owed its existence to the success of this campaign.
1. SGZ 37.2 2. SGZ 43.1 3. SGZ 42.2 4. SGZ 37.2 5. SGZ 32 6. SGZ 1 7. SGZ 9.6 8. SGZ 25.1 9. SGZ 9.5 10. SGZ 1 11. SGZ 9.2 12. SGZ 17.5 13. SGZ 17.4 14. SGZ 1 15. SGZ 32 16. SGZ 9.2 17. SGZ 37.2 18. SGZ 32 19. Wèi Jìn Shìyù 魏晋世语; SGZ 9.2 20. SGZ 26.4 21. SGZ 17.4 22. SGZ 26.4 23. SGZ 9.6 24. SGZ 1 25. Pei Songzhi; SGZ 37.2 26. Zhào Yún Biézhuàn 赵云别传; SGZ 36.5 27. SGZ 45.2 28. SGZ 9.6 29. SGZ 32 30. SGZ 1 31. SGZ 15.4 32. SGZ 17.4 33. SGZ 1 34. SGZ 40.1, where it is referred to as such. 35. SGZ 40.1 36. SGZ 32 37. SGZ 40.1
