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Chandra Releases Five New Images to Celebrate wireless communication   the International Year of Light

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To celebrate the International Year of Light, five Chandra images (M51, SNR E0519-69.0, MSH 11-62, Cygnus A, and RCW 86) have been released.

To celebrate the International Year of Light (2015) new images are being released from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, along with data in other types of light from various telescopes.

The year of 2015 has been declared the International Year of Light (IYL) by the United Nations. Organizations, institutions, and individuals involved in the science and applications of light will be joining together for this yearlong celebration to help spread the word about the wonders of light.

In many ways, astronomy uses the science of light. By building telescopes that can detect light in its many forms, from radio waves on one end of the “electromagnetic spectrum” to gamma rays on the other, scientists can get a better understanding of the processes at work in the Universe.

NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory explores the Universe in X-rays, a high-energy form of light. By studying X-ray data and comparing them with observations in other types of light, scientists can develop a better understanding of objects likes stars and galaxies that generate temperatures of millions  industrial transport  of degrees and produce X-rays.

To recognize the start of IYL, the Chandra X-ray Center is releasing a set of images that combine data from telescopes tuned to different wavelengths of light. From a distant galaxy to the relatively nearby debris field of an exploded star, these images demonstrate the myriad ways that information about the Universe is communicated to us through light.

The images, beginning at the upper left and moving clockwise, are:

Messier 51 (M51): This galaxy, nicknamed the “Whirlpool,” is a spiral galaxy, like our Milky Way, located about 30 million light years from Earth. This composite image combines data colle Transformer Monitoring  cted at X-ray wavelengths by Chandra (purple), ultraviolet by the Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX, blue); visible light by Hubble (green), and infrared by Spitzer (red).

SNR 0519-69.0: When a massive star exploded in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy to the Milky Way, it left behind an expanding shell of debris called SNR 0519-69.0. Here, multimillion degree gas is seen in X-rays from Chandra (blue). The outer edge of the explosion (red) and stars in the field of view are seen in visible light from Hubble.

MSH 11-62: When X-rays, shown in blue, from Chandra and XMM-Newton are joined in this image with radio data from the Australia Telescope Compact Array (pink) and visible light data from the Digitized Sky Survey (DSS, yellow), a new view of the region emerges. This object, known as MSH 11-62, contains an inner nebula of charged particles that could be an outflow from the dense spinning core left behind when a massive star exploded.

RCW 86: This supernova remnant is the remains of an exploded star that may have been witnessed by Chinese astronomers almost 2,000 years ago. Modern telescopes have the advantage of observing this object in light that is completely invisible to the unaided human eye. This image combines X-rays from Chandra (pink and blue) along with visible emission from hydrogen atoms in the rim of the remnant, observed with the 0.9-m Curtis Schmidt telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (yellow).

Cygnus A: This galaxy, at a distance of some 700 million light years, contains a giant bubble filled with hot, X-ray emitting gas detected by Chandra (blue). Radio data from the NSF’s Very Large Array (red) reveal “hot spots” about 300,000 light years out from the center of the galaxy where powerful jets emanating from the galaxy’s supermassive black hole end. Visible light data (yellow) from both Hubble and the DSS complete this view.

In addition to these newly released images, the Chandra X-ray Center has created a new online repository of images called “Light: Beyond the Bulb” for IYL. This project places astronomical objects in context with light in other fields of science and research.

NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, manages the Chandra program for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, controls Chandra’s science and flight operations.

Image: NASA/CXC/SAOplc router

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A New Design Strat redundant  egy for Better Lithium Oxygen Batteries

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Yale researchers have devised a method that brings marketable Li-O2 batteriescloser to reality, improving both the batteries’ performance and the ability to study them.

In recent years, lithium-oxygen batteries have intrigued researchers with their potential. They can store at least two to three times the energy as lithium-ion batteries can, which are the current standard for consumer electronics, so laptops could theoretically run longer on a single charge and electric cars would drive farther.

But they’re not quite there yet. For now, Li-O2 batteries operate sluggishly and have short lives. Compounding matters, it’s hard to ge smart grid  t a sense of how to fix that because figuring out the exact nature of theirchemistry has proved tricky.

But researchers in the lab of Prof. André D. Taylor in Chemical & Environmental Engineering have devised a method that brings marketable Li-O2 batteriescloser to  Vending Touchscreen  reality, improving both the batteries’ performance and the ability to study them. Their findings are published online in ACS Nano Letters. Won-Hee Ryu, a former post-doc in Taylor’s lab and now an assistant professor in the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at Sookmyung Women’s University, is the lead author.

One of the big problems with Li-O2 batteries is their production of oxides, and its effect on the electrode. “What happens is the catalysts on the electrode surface gets buried with the oxide, so it’s no longer an effective catalyst,” Taylor said. Those solids build up on the electrodes, where the catalysts are placed, leading to an early battery death.

In a previous study, the researchers mitigated this effect by inserting a nonconductive porous membrane that dispersed the catalyst sites between the electrode and the separator. Doing so kept the lithium oxide formation from building up on the oxygen electrode catalysts. The catalysts on the nonconductive support facilitated oxygen evolution – a key step in recharging a battery – even when the oxide formation is far from the electrode.

But they also saw room for improvement. In the new study, the researchers replaced the membrane material, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), with anodic aluminum oxide (AAO). Palladium nanoparticles were dispersed as catalytic sites.

“The brittleness of the AAO membranes allows them to be cross-sectioned without destroying the well-defined pore structure, thus preserving the morphology of integrated lithium-oxide products,” Ryu said. “Therefore, the AAO membrane backbone offers a facile and effective way to observe cross-sectional features of the products at different electrochemical states and to investigate the growth mechanism for reaction.”

Based on that idea, the researchers demonstrated that the oxidation is possible at long distances– up to 20 micrometers – from the electrode.

“PAN is a polymer, so it could break down if you’re doing recycling,” Taylor said. “But anodic aluminum oxide isa very stable oxide and it doesn’t lead to any unexpected side reactions. It works better and gives a better perspective on what’s happening electrochemically in the process.”

The modification not only led to a more efficient battery cell function, but it allowed the researchers to examine the composition of discharge products and the catalytic sites using Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

For future studies, Taylor said they will try different catalysts with the AAO membrane and explore new Li-O2 architectures.

Publication: Won-Hee Ryu, et al., “A New Design Strategy for Observing Lithium Oxide Gro hardware  wth-Evolution Interactions Using Geometric Catalyst Positioning,” Nano Lett., 2016; DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b00856

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Mappin vending route optimization  g Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Structure at the Atomic Level

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Atomic resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy images and electron diffraction patterns, arranged on a rendering of a battery, show how the structure of lithium-rich and manganese-rich transition metal oxides used inside battery cathodes changes with composition. The images also show how the surface of the cathode has a different structure than the interior. Credit: Berkeley Lab

Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in home electronics and are now being used to power electric vehicles and store energy for the power grid. But their limited number of recharge cycles and tendency to degrade in capacity over their lifetime have spurred a great deal of research into improving the technology.

An international team led by researchers from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) used advanced techniques in electron microscopy to show how the ratio of materials that make up a lithium-ion battery electrode affects its structure at the atomic level, and how the surface is very different from the rest of the material. The work was published in the journal Energy & Environmental Science.

Knowing how the internal and surface structure of a battery material changes over a wide range of chemical compositions will aid future studies on cathode transformations and could also lead to the development of new battery materials.

“This finding could change the way we look at phase transformations within the cathode and the resulting loss of capacity in this class of material,” said Alpesh Khushalchand Shukla, a scientist at Berkeley Lab’s Molecular Foundry, and lead author of the study. “Our work shows that it is extremely important to completely characterize a new material in its pristine state, as well as after cycling, in order to avoid misinterpretations.”

Previous work by researchers at the Molecular Foundry, a research center specializing in nanoscale science, revealed the structure of cathode materials containing “excess” lithium, resolving a longstanding debate.

Using a suite of electron microscopes both at the National Center for Electron Microscopy (NCEM), a Molecular Foundry facility, and at SuperSTEM, the National Research Facility for Advanced Electron Microscopy in Daresbury, U.K., the research team found that while the atoms throughout the interior of the cathode material remained in the same structural pattern across all compositions, decreasing the amount of lithium caused an increase in randomness in the position of certain atoms within the structure.

By comparing different compositions of cathode material to battery performance, the researchers also demonstrated it was possible to optimize battery performance in relation to capacity by using a lower ratio of lithium to other metals.

The most surprising finding was that the surface structure of an unused cathode is very different from the interior of the cathode. A thin layer of material on the surface possessing a different structure, called the “spinel” phase, was found in all of their experiments. Several previous studies had overlooked that this layer might be present on both new and used cathodes.

By systematically varying the ratio of lithium to a transition metal, like trying different amounts of ingredients in a new cookie recipe, the research team was able to study the relationship between the surface and interior structure and to measure the electrochemical performance of the material. The team took images of each batch of the cathode materials from multiple angles and created complete, 3-D renderings of each structure.

“Obtaining such precise, atomic-level information over length scales relevant to battery technologies was a challenge,” said Quentin Ramasse, Director of the SuperSTEM Laboratory. “This is a perfect example of why the multiple imaging and spectroscopy techniques available in electron microscopy make it such an indispensab healthcare  le and versatile tool in renewable energy research.”

The researchers also used a newly developed technique called 4-D scanning transmission electron microscopy (4-D STEM). In trans 3g modem  mission electron microscopy (TEM), images are formed after electrons pass through a thin sample. In conventional scanning transmission electrode microscopy (STEM), the electron beam is focused down to a very small spot (as small as 0.5 nanometers, or billionths of a meter, in diameter) and then that spot is scanned back and forth over the sample like a mower on a lawn.

The detector in conventional STEM simply counts how many electrons are scattered (or not scattered) in each pixel. However, in 4D-STEM, the researchers use a high-speed electron detector to record where each electron scatters, from each scanned point. It allows researchers to measure the local structure of their sample at high resolution over a large field of view.

“The introduction of high-speed electron cameras allows us to extract atomic-scale information from very large sample dimensions,” said Colin Ophus, a research scientist at NCEM. “4D-STEM experiments mean we no longer need to make a tradeoff between the smallest features we can resolve and the field-of-view that we are observing – we can analyze the atomic structure of the entire particlPower Fault Detectione at once.”

Berkeley Lab’s Molecular Foundry is a DOE Office of Science User.

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of Basic Science, and Small Business Voucher Pilot Program; Envia Systems; and the U.K.’s Engineering and Physical Science Research Council.

Publication: Alpesh Khushalchand Shukla, et al., “Effect of composition on the structure of lithium- and manganese-rich transition metal oxides,” Energy Environ. Sci., 2018, doi:10.1039/C7EE02443F

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Biochemical React Power Fault Detection  ions Act Differently When Subjected to Intracellular Crowding

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Biochemical reactions behave differently when subjected to intracellular crowding Image: James Cridland/Flickr

Molecular crowding inside cells is a critical factor that is sometimes overlooked in the lab. Biochemical reactions are drastically different in tighter spaces, resulting in significant physical and chemical consequences.

The reductive approach to chemical reactions is attractive to scientists, as it’s convenient when interpreting results and easier to work with. However, if a more simplistic experimental framework is adopted, these tests may overlook the critical aspect of intracellular crowding.

Molecular Crowding Effects in the T-cell Signaling Pathway, via Jonathan Eide

If there is less space available for each molecule, the resulting effective concentration is boosted, increasing the chemical potential. When more molecules are crammed together, there is also the possibility that reactants will link up, causing the chemical potential to respond drastically.

There is also a slowdow Vending Telemetry  n of molecular diffusion, particularly for larger molecules. Lower rates of diffusion imply that diffusion-limited reactions happen slower, especially those involving larger constituents. These two consequences, h plc programming  igher chemical potentials and lower diffusion rates, counteract each other when it comes to intermolecular reactions, making the resulting reaction rate difficult to predict. However, t Industrial IoT Router/Gateway  here usually is an optimal spot with enough coziness to encourage reactivity, but not too much to gum up the works.

The effects on thermodynamics and kinetics are so far ranging that estimates of reaction rates and equilibria made in uncrowded solutions differ by orders of magnitude from those of the same reactions operating under crowded conditions.

[via Wired]

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The Amazon Rainforest Could Be Dry wordpress plugins  ing Out

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In the past few years, the Amazon rainforest in Peru’s Ucayali region has been hit by two severe droughts, one in 2005 and another in 2010. These dry spells could become more frequent as temperatures in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean continue to rise and as thousands of square kilometers of forest are burnt to make way for farming.

The scientists presented their find industrial LTE router  ings on December 7 at the American Geophysical Union meeting. This region has seen warmer temperatures in the past, but th Industrial 3G Router  e western Amazon is under siege now from a combination of a warming climate and human population growth, something it has never faced before. The current protected areas might not be enough to buffer against the upcoming changes.

Migration from the Andean highlands has boosted Peru’s Amazonian states to the top of the population growth charts, and the heavy influx of people has started to take its toll on the forest. The country has lost about 6,475 square kilometers of forest, which is an area the size of Delaware, between 2005 and 2009. This number is up from a loss of 4,550 square kilometers in the five previous years. This loss translated into reduced precipitation, further stressing the remaining trees. About 50% of the rainfall of the Amazon is generated by the forest itself, through transpiration and evaporation. Deforestation exacerbates the drought problem, removing an internal engine that boosts precipitation.

Clearing fields and pastures leaves more exposed forest edges, drying out the interior and making it more likely to burn if agricultural fires escape. During 2005 and 2010, fires added 3.8 gigatons of carbon into the atmosphere. Recen gprs  t studies have found that Amazonian trees have weathered past climatic warming, but the changes were slower and not exacerbated anthropogenically.

Trees can acclimate, species can either adapt, migrate, or simply go extinct, states Kenneth Feeley, a biologist at the Florida International University. A floral species could expand its range into a cooler region, but only as fast as seed dispersal allows. There have already been changes in the eastern slope of the Peruvian Andes. Species are moving upslope at about 3 vertical meters a year, which is fast but this might not be fast enough. They need to move between 9 or 10 vertical meters a year.

Deforestation in the lowlands reduces the areas to which species can spread. Fields, pastures, and road create barriers to dispersal. Peru has large protected areas, but scientists aren’t sure whether these are big enough or in the right places, to allow species to migrate in a rapidly changing climate.

Rainfall, geology, and topography in the western Amazon have given rise to a mosaic of ecosystems that are so diverse that they are virtually unknown, states Asner, a tropical ecologist at the Carnegie Institution for Science at Stanford University. Scientists have little data on which to base their conservation plans.

[via Scientific American]

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Body Language is a Better Indicator of Intense Emotions opencart webdesign   than Facial Expressions

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Without body cues, it’s hard to tell if these tennis champs are winners or losers. Credit: H. Aviezer et al., Science

Intense emotional experiences are more easily read in body language than in watching facial expressions. Facial clues in most studies rely on a set of stylized, recognizable expressions, which don’t reflect the expressions that people make in the real world.

The scientists published their findings in the journal Science. Hillel Aviezer, a neuropsychologist at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and lead author, suggests that when emotions get extreme, like when people are undergoing fleeting peaks of intense pain, joy, grief or anger, these could look surprisingly similar, at least on their faces.

However, most people aren’t confused whether someone they see is experiencing grief or joy. To figure how people distinguish the difference, the scientists showed photos of professional tennis players to 45 Princeton University students, randomly divided into three groups of 15. Each tennis player had won or lost an important match. The participants rated the players’ facial expressions from negative to positive, on a scale of 1 to 9, with 5 marking a neutral point. One group looked at full-body photos, one looked only at the players’ bodies while the last group looked at only their heads. Only the last group had trouble making the right identification, indicating that facial expressions alone didn’t give the participants enough cues.

The images were then doctored, switching the winning player’s head with those of the losers. Participants still labeled the winners or losers according to the players’ posture, not their facial expressions. In subsequent interviews, researchers learned that whether hands were open or clenched were more important in determining whether a player was de cashless vending  emed a winner than facial cues.

Yet, in another experiment 12vdc lte routerthat asked 20 participants to state whether they would use body language, facial expressions, or both to evaluate emotion, 80% believed that they could judge the full-body photos by facial expression alone. That underscores the bias toward facial expressions and how little we credit body language.

In a further experiment using photos of people in high-intensity situations, from fune fault detection  rals to orgasms, without body language to provide context, viewers struggled to correctly read facial expressions.

The results of this study could possibly help people that have difficulty recognizing facial expressions. “Maybe we should zoom out from isolated faces when we teach people how to read emotion, looking at what’s happening in the surroundings, then body and then the face,” states Aviezer.

[via ScienceNOW]

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The Mystery of India’s Rapid Move toward Eurasia 80 Million Year rugged  s Ago

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In this artist’s rendering, the left image shows what Earth looked like more than 140 million years ago, when India was part of an immense supercontinent called Gondwana. The right image shows Earth today.

A newly published study from MIT geologists reveals that a double subduction system may have driven India to drift at high speed toward Eurasia some 80 million years ago.

In the history of continental drift, India has been a mysterious record-holder.

More than 140 million years ago, India was part of an immense supercontinent called Gondwana, which covered much of the Southern Hemisphere. Around 120 million years ago, what is now India broke off and started slowly migrating north, at about 5 centimeters per year. Then, about 80 million years ago, the continent suddenly sped up, racing north at about 15 centimeters per year — about twice as fast as the fastest modern tectonic drift. The continent collided with Eurasia about 50 million years ago, giving rise to the Himalayas.

For years, scientists have struggled to explain how India could have drifted northward so quickly. Now geologists at MIT have offered up an answer: India was pulled northward by the combination of two subduction zones — regions in the Earth’s mantle where the edge of one tectonic plate sinks under another plate. As one plate sinks, it pulls along any connected landmasses. The geologists r intelligent substation  easoned that two such sinking plates would provide twice the pulling power, doubling India’s drift velocity.

The team found relics of what may have been two subduction zones by sampling and dating rocks from the Himalayan region. They then developed a model for a double subduction system, and determined that India’s ancient drift velocity could have depended on two factors within the system: the width of the subducting plates, and the distance between them. If the plates are relatively narrow and far apart, they would likely cause India to drift at a faster rate.

The group incorporated the measurements they obtained from the Himalayas into their new model, and found that a double subduction system may indeed have driven India to drift at high speed toward Eurasia some 80 million years ago.

“In earth science, it’s hard to be completely sure of anything,” says Leigh Royden, a professor of geology and geophysics in M remote access  IT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences. “But there are so many pieces of evidence that all fit together here that we’re pretty convinced.”

Royden and colleagues including Oliver Jagoutz, an associate professor of earth, atmospheric, and planetary sciences at MIT, and others at the University of Southern California have published their results this week in the journal Nature Geoscience.

What drives drift?

Based on the geologic record, India’s migration appears to have started about 120 million years ago, when Gondwana began to break apart. India was sent adrift across what was then the Tethys Ocean — an immense body of water that separated Gondwana from Eurasia. India drifted along at an unremarkable 40 millimeters per year until about 80 million years ago, when it suddenly sped up to 150 millimeters per year. India kept up this velocity for another 30 million years before hitting the brakes — just when the continent collided with Eurasia.

“When you look at simulations of Gondwana breaking up, the plates kind of start to move, and then India comes slowly off of Antarctica, and suddenly it just zooms across — it’s very dramatic,” Royden says.

In 2011, scientists believed they had identified the driving force behind India’s fast drift: a plume of magma that welled up from the Earth’s mantle. According to their hypothesis, the plume created a volcanic jet of material underneath India, which the subcontinent could effectively “surf” at high speed.

However, when others modeled this scenario, they found that any volcanic activity would have lasted, at most, for 5 million years — not nearly enough time to account for India’s 30 million years of high-velocity drift.

Squeezing honey

Instead, Royden and Jagoutz believe that India’s fast drift may be explained by the subduction of two plates: the tectonic plate carrying India and a second plate in the middle of the Tethys Ocean.

In 2013, the team, along with 30 students, trekked through the Himalayas, where they collected rocks and took paleomagnetic measurements to determine where the rocks originally formed. From the data, the researchers determined that about 80 million years ago, an arc of volcanoes formed near the equator, which was then in the middle of the Tethys Ocean.

A volcanic arc is typically a sign of a subduction zone, and the group identified a second volcanic arc south of the first, near where India first began to break away from Gondwana. The data suggested that there may have been two subducting plates: a northern oceanic plate, and a southern tectonic plate that carried India.

Back at MIT, Royden and Jagoutz developed a model of double subduction involving a northern and a southern plate. They calculated how the plates would move as each subducted, or sank into the Earth’s mantle. As plates sink, they squeeze material out between their edges. The more material that can be squeezed out, the faster a plate can migrate. The team calculated that plates that are relatively narrow and far apart can squeeze more material out, resulting in faster drift.

“Imagine it’s easier to squeeze honey through a wide tube, versus a very narrow tube,” Royden says. “It’s exactly the same phenomenon.”

Royden and Jagoutz’s measurements from the Himalayas showed that the northern oceanic plate remained extremely wide, spanning nearly one-third of the Earth’s circumference. However, the southern plate carrying India underwent a radical change: About 80 million years ago, a collision with Africa cut that plate down to 3,000 kilometers — right around the time India started to speed up.

The team believes the diminished plate allowed more material to escape between the two plates. Based on the dimensions of the plates, the researchers calculated that India would have sped up from 50 to 150 millimeters per year. While others have calculated similar rates for India’s dri4g lte router dual SIMft, this is the first evidence that double subduction acted as the continent’s driving force.

“It’s a lucky coincidence of events,” says Jagoutz, who sees the results as a starting point for a new set of questions. “There were a lot of changes going on in that time period, including climate, that may be explained by this phenomenon. So we have a few ideas we want to look at in the future.”

Publication: Oliver Jagoutz, et al., “Anomalously fast convergence of India and Eurasia caused by double subduction,” Nature Geoscience, (2015); doi:10.1038/ngeo2418

Image: iStock (edited by MIT News)

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Silk Fibers May smart grid   Represent Natural Metamaterials, Capable of light Confinement

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New research suggests fibers from a silkworm’s cocoon may represent “natural metamaterials,” a discovery with various technological and scientific implications. Purdue University image/Young Kim

New research has demonstrated how the nano-architecture of a silkworm’s fiber causes “Anderson localization of light,” a discovery that could lead to various innovations and a better understanding of light transport and heat transfer.

The discovery also could help create synthetic materials and structures that realize the phenomenon, named after Nobel laureate Philip Anderson, whose theory describes how electrons can be brought to a complete halt in materials due to their “scattering and defects.” The new findings relate not to electrons, but to light transport.

Researchers demonstrated how the nano-architecture of the silk fibers is capable of light “confinement,” a trait that could provide a range of technological applications including innovations that harness light for new types of medical therapies and biosensing. This light-confinement effect in biological and natural tissue, which was unexpected, is made possible by the Anderson localization of light, said Young Kim, an associate professor in Purdue University’s Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering.

The new findings suggest silk fibers may represent “natural metamaterials” and “natural metastructures,” Kim said.

Various research groups have created synthetic “metamaterials” capable of the ultra-efficient control of light. However, metamaterials have limitations because they are often difficult to scale up for commercial production and pose other challenges. Because silk’s nano-architecture is “disordered” instead of meticulously designed periodic structures, the findings suggest a strategy to produce metamaterials that are less expensive to fabricate and manufacture and easier to scale up for industry.

“This is fascinating because realizing Anderson localization of light is extremely challenging, yet we now know that it can be achieved using irregular, disordered nanostructures to create highly packed nanomaterials for strong light scattering as a silkworm produces a silk fiber and spins a cocoon shell in nature,” Kim said.

The findings are detailed in a paper appearing on Wednesday (January 31) in the journal Nature Communications. The paper’s lead author is Purdue postdoctoral research associate Seung Ho Choi.

“Our findings could open up new possibilities for metamaterials and metastructures,” said Kim, who is leading research to better understand the underlying reasons for silk’s white, silvery and lustrous reflection. “I know this is an oxymoron, but we are saying silk fibers represent ‘natural metamaterials’ and ‘natural metastructures.'”

The silk fibers are 10-20 microns in diameter and contain thousands of tiny nanofibrils, each around 100 nanometers wide. For perspective, a human hair is roughly 100 microns in diameter.

A silk fiber has numerous “scattering centers” inside. Anderson localization arises from this light scattering due to disorder in the nanostructure.

“Silk has many nanofibrils, which individually scatter light,” Kim said.

For the Anderson localization to occur, there must be both scattering and interference between scattered light waves. De 2 sim  nsely packed irregular nanostructures cause light waves to interfere with each other, sometimes in destructive and sometimes in constructive ways. If constructive, the light is intensified.

“If waves are constructively interfering, this forms a very high energy inside the disordered media,” Choi said.

The small size and roughly parallel arrangement of the nanofibrils are conducive to the effect. The scattering power is maximized when there are many scattering centers and when their size is comparable to the wavelength of the light, both criteria found in the silk fibers.

Whereas commercial optical fibers must be specially engineered with a reflective coating, or cladding, to allow for the confinement of light, the silk fibers are able to achieve the feat naturally due to Anderson localization of light. The Anderson localization creates “modes” that make confinement of light possible without carefully engineered periodic structures. Instead, the same confinement is possible with disordered, more random designs.

“We found that most transmission of light disappears in most of the silk surface. HPower Fault Detectionowever, counterintuitively, in a small area we found that the energy is confined, and this confined energy is transmitted through localized modes,” Kim said. “The localized mode is a unique pathway for energy flow.”

Although biological structures such as silk diffuse light, other natural materials with similar microstructures do not possess the localized, modes making Anderson localization of light possible.

“Such a difference makes silk particularly interesting for radiative heat transfer.” Kim said. The silk has a high  wireless communication  emissivity for infrared light, meaning it readily radiates heat, or infrared radiation, while at the same time being a good reflector of solar light. Because the strong reflectivity from Anderson localization is combined with the high emissivity of the biomolecules in infrared radiation, silk radiates more heat than it absorbs, making it ideal for passive, or “self-cooling.”

“You may have heard that silk underwear can keep you cooler in summertime and warmer in winter,” Kim said. “We have learned the basic mechanism behind this observation.”

The work is led by researchers in Purdue’s Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering; the Department of Agricultural Biology of the National Institute of Agricultural Sciences in South Korea; and the Materials and Manufacturing Directorate of the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory. A complete list of co-authors is available in the abstract.

“Our findings could open up largely unexplored opportunities for engineering, energy, and biomedical areas,” Kim said. “However, while direct applications could be possible, we really want to learn from silk to help develop material synthesis and design processes in the future.”

Publication: Seung Ho Choi, et al., “Anderson light localization in biological nanostructures of native silk,” Nature Communications, volume 9, Article number: 452 (2018) doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02500-5

Sources: Emil Venere, Young L. Kim, Seung Ho Choi, Purdue University

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