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Astrophysicists Investigate Where Stars Fo software  rm in Merging Galaxies

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The galaxies NGC 2623 in the final stages of their titanic merger. The violent encounter has produced widespread star formation. A systematic new study of galaxy simulations examines where in merging systems the star formation activity tends to take place.

Researchers from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics simulated galaxy collisions under a wide range of conditions in order to investigate the question of where the induced star formation is located.

Collisions between galaxies, and even less dramatic gravitational encounters between them, are recognized as triggering star formation. Observations of luminous galaxies, powered by starbursts, are consistent with this conclusion. Numerical simulations also support this picture, with gravity funneling copious amounts of gas into the central regions of galaxies, fueling powerful burs Industrial 3G Router  ts of star formation there. But starbursts are not ubiquitous in interacting galaxies. Triggering therefore depends on many factors, including the specific merger geometry (how they come together), the properties of the progenitor galaxies (how much gas is available for new stars), and time-scale (maybe the starburst has yet to happen, or has finished?)

CfA astronomer Lars Hernquist and six colleagues computed seventy-five simulated galaxy collisions under a wide range of conditions in order to investigate the question of where the induced star formation is located. Observational tests of this property are difficult to make because many of the most interesting cases are far enough away that individual regions can’t easily be distinguished for study. For the same reason, it is often hard to tell in which of the two merging galaxies (or both?) the starburst take place.

The results of these simulations were clear: the interactions enhanced the star formation activity in the centers of galaxies, and in particular in roughly the central ten thousand light-years. (By distribution line sensorway of comparison, our Sun is about twenty-five thousand light-years away from the Milky Way’s center.) The scientists discovered several other important effects about the star formation as well: it was actually suppressed in the outer regions of the galaxies (depending on the merger geometry); at later merger stages it often formed a ring around the central zone, and its strength was critically dependent on whether the rotations of the galaxies were in the same direction (star formation enhanced) or opposite (star formation suppressed). The new generation of telescopes under construction should have the capability of improving the observations, and this theoretical work will help guide the new research.

Publication: Jorge Moreno, et al., “Mapping galaxy encounters in numerical simulations: the spatial extent of induced star formation,” MNRAS (April 1, 2015) 448 (2): 1107-1117; doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv094

PDF Copy of the Study: Mapping galaxy encounters in numerical simulations: The spati smart vending  al extent of induced star formation

Image: Hubble Legacy Archive, ESA, NASA, APOD; Processing – Martin Pugh

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Ultrasound Improvements May Help Monitor distribution fault detection   the Progression of Disease

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By producing consistent images that can compensate for body motions and by providing a way to map the exact location on the skin where one reading was taken, MIT researchers have made sonography a much more precise tool, possibly allowing doctors to accurately track the development of medical conditions and monitor the progression of diseases.

Ultrasound images, known as sonograms, have become a familiar part of pregnancy, allowing expectant parents a view of their unborn child. But new research at MIT could improve the ability of untrained workers to perform basic ultrasound tests, while allowing trained workers to much more accurately track the development of medical conditions, such as the growth of a tumor or the b Industrial VPN router  uildup of plaque in arteries.

The improvements to this widely used technology could provide detailed information far beyond what is possible with existing systems, the researchers say. The work, led by Brian W. Anthony, co-director of MIT’s Medical Electronic Device Realization Center (MEDRC) and director of the Master of Engineering in Manufacturing Program, was recently presented at the International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging in Barcelona, Spain.

There are two key elements to the improvements engineered by Anthony and his team. First, the researchers devised a way to adjust for variations in the force exerted by a sonographer, producing more consistent images that can compensate for body motions such as breathing and heartbeat. Second, they provided a way to map the exact location on the skin where one reading was taken, so that it can be precisely matched with later readings to detect changes in the size or location of a tumor, clot or other structure.

Together car router  , the two improvements could make sonography a much more precise tool for monitoring the progression of disease, Anthony says. The devices are currently undergoing three clinical trials, including one at Boston Children’s Hospital focused on monitoring the progression of patients with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD).

In that trial, Anthony says, researchers are trying to determine “how fast the muscle deteriorates, and how effective different medications are.” It’s important to have a reliable way of monitoring changes in muscle, he says. The study is aimed at determining whether ultrasound analysis can serve as a convenient, noninvasive, clinically meaningful way of monitoring disease progression in DMD.

The new device maintains constant force through the addition of a force sensor to its probe tip and servomotors that can respond almost instantly to changes in force. That, in turn, makes it possible to analyze how the image varies as the force increases, which can provide important diagnostic information about the elasticity of skin, muscle and other tissues.

To provide accurate positioning, a tiny camera and lens mounted on the probe can reveal skin patterns that are distinctive and constant, similar to fingerprints. “Skin patterns are pretty unique,” Anthony says; his team’s system, using software to compare new images with earlier ones, “can get you back to that same patch of skin,” something that is impossible to do manually.

Anthony likens that precise positioning to “an on-the-patient GPS system” for locating structures in the body. The ability to take images over time from exactly the same position makes it possible to monitor changing tissues quite precisely: The imaging system can determine the volume of a near-surface tumor or other feature to within an accuracy of 1 to 2 percent, he says. There are existing ways to get this kind of accuracy, but these require expensive specialized equipment that few hospitals have.

Besides the potential for these advanced diagnostic capabilities, enhanced control over testing could make it possible for relatively untrained health care workers to administer basic ultrasound pregnancy tests — especially in remote, underserved areas where trained sonographers may not be available. The various control techniques “take the uncertainty out” of the process, Anthony says.

Craig Steiner, an anesthesiologist at Chester County Hospital in Pennsylvania, says, “I’m excited about the prospects” of these improved systems. “The reproducibility of the scan with consistent pressure and picture quality would help with remote readings of locally done scans. This c Global Leader in Industrial IoT  ould be relevant for teleradiology, which is an area ripe for expansion.”

Steiner adds: “The field of ultrasound is still developing. Ultrasound will partially replace CT scans, reduce radiation exposure to patients and make diagnosing easier when away from the high-cost hospitals. It can help our world provide care at a more reasonable cost with a new paradigm of care.”

The research was conducted by Anthony, mechanical engineering graduate student Matthew Gilbertson and electrical engineering graduate student Shih-Yu Sun. The work has been supported by the Singapore-MIT Alliance, Terason and GE Healthcare.

Image: MIT News Office

Reprinted with permission of MIT News

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Mappin vending route optimization  g Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Structure at the Atomic Level

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Atomic resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy images and electron diffraction patterns, arranged on a rendering of a battery, show how the structure of lithium-rich and manganese-rich transition metal oxides used inside battery cathodes changes with composition. The images also show how the surface of the cathode has a different structure than the interior. Credit: Berkeley Lab

Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in home electronics and are now being used to power electric vehicles and store energy for the power grid. But their limited number of recharge cycles and tendency to degrade in capacity over their lifetime have spurred a great deal of research into improving the technology.

An international team led by researchers from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) used advanced techniques in electron microscopy to show how the ratio of materials that make up a lithium-ion battery electrode affects its structure at the atomic level, and how the surface is very different from the rest of the material. The work was published in the journal Energy & Environmental Science.

Knowing how the internal and surface structure of a battery material changes over a wide range of chemical compositions will aid future studies on cathode transformations and could also lead to the development of new battery materials.

“This finding could change the way we look at phase transformations within the cathode and the resulting loss of capacity in this class of material,” said Alpesh Khushalchand Shukla, a scientist at Berkeley Lab’s Molecular Foundry, and lead author of the study. “Our work shows that it is extremely important to completely characterize a new material in its pristine state, as well as after cycling, in order to avoid misinterpretations.”

Previous work by researchers at the Molecular Foundry, a research center specializing in nanoscale science, revealed the structure of cathode materials containing “excess” lithium, resolving a longstanding debate.

Using a suite of electron microscopes both at the National Center for Electron Microscopy (NCEM), a Molecular Foundry facility, and at SuperSTEM, the National Research Facility for Advanced Electron Microscopy in Daresbury, U.K., the research team found that while the atoms throughout the interior of the cathode material remained in the same structural pattern across all compositions, decreasing the amount of lithium caused an increase in randomness in the position of certain atoms within the structure.

By comparing different compositions of cathode material to battery performance, the researchers also demonstrated it was possible to optimize battery performance in relation to capacity by using a lower ratio of lithium to other metals.

The most surprising finding was that the surface structure of an unused cathode is very different from the interior of the cathode. A thin layer of material on the surface possessing a different structure, called the “spinel” phase, was found in all of their experiments. Several previous studies had overlooked that this layer might be present on both new and used cathodes.

By systematically varying the ratio of lithium to a transition metal, like trying different amounts of ingredients in a new cookie recipe, the research team was able to study the relationship between the surface and interior structure and to measure the electrochemical performance of the material. The team took images of each batch of the cathode materials from multiple angles and created complete, 3-D renderings of each structure.

“Obtaining such precise, atomic-level information over length scales relevant to battery technologies was a challenge,” said Quentin Ramasse, Director of the SuperSTEM Laboratory. “This is a perfect example of why the multiple imaging and spectroscopy techniques available in electron microscopy make it such an indispensab healthcare  le and versatile tool in renewable energy research.”

The researchers also used a newly developed technique called 4-D scanning transmission electron microscopy (4-D STEM). In trans 3g modem  mission electron microscopy (TEM), images are formed after electrons pass through a thin sample. In conventional scanning transmission electrode microscopy (STEM), the electron beam is focused down to a very small spot (as small as 0.5 nanometers, or billionths of a meter, in diameter) and then that spot is scanned back and forth over the sample like a mower on a lawn.

The detector in conventional STEM simply counts how many electrons are scattered (or not scattered) in each pixel. However, in 4D-STEM, the researchers use a high-speed electron detector to record where each electron scatters, from each scanned point. It allows researchers to measure the local structure of their sample at high resolution over a large field of view.

“The introduction of high-speed electron cameras allows us to extract atomic-scale information from very large sample dimensions,” said Colin Ophus, a research scientist at NCEM. “4D-STEM experiments mean we no longer need to make a tradeoff between the smallest features we can resolve and the field-of-view that we are observing – we can analyze the atomic structure of the entire particlPower Fault Detectione at once.”

Berkeley Lab’s Molecular Foundry is a DOE Office of Science User.

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of Basic Science, and Small Business Voucher Pilot Program; Envia Systems; and the U.K.’s Engineering and Physical Science Research Council.

Publication: Alpesh Khushalchand Shukla, et al., “Effect of composition on the structure of lithium- and manganese-rich transition metal oxides,” Energy Environ. Sci., 2018, doi:10.1039/C7EE02443F

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Biochemical React Power Fault Detection  ions Act Differently When Subjected to Intracellular Crowding

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Biochemical reactions behave differently when subjected to intracellular crowding Image: James Cridland/Flickr

Molecular crowding inside cells is a critical factor that is sometimes overlooked in the lab. Biochemical reactions are drastically different in tighter spaces, resulting in significant physical and chemical consequences.

The reductive approach to chemical reactions is attractive to scientists, as it’s convenient when interpreting results and easier to work with. However, if a more simplistic experimental framework is adopted, these tests may overlook the critical aspect of intracellular crowding.

Molecular Crowding Effects in the T-cell Signaling Pathway, via Jonathan Eide

If there is less space available for each molecule, the resulting effective concentration is boosted, increasing the chemical potential. When more molecules are crammed together, there is also the possibility that reactants will link up, causing the chemical potential to respond drastically.

There is also a slowdow Vending Telemetry  n of molecular diffusion, particularly for larger molecules. Lower rates of diffusion imply that diffusion-limited reactions happen slower, especially those involving larger constituents. These two consequences, h plc programming  igher chemical potentials and lower diffusion rates, counteract each other when it comes to intermolecular reactions, making the resulting reaction rate difficult to predict. However, t Industrial IoT Router/Gateway  here usually is an optimal spot with enough coziness to encourage reactivity, but not too much to gum up the works.

The effects on thermodynamics and kinetics are so far ranging that estimates of reaction rates and equilibria made in uncrowded solutions differ by orders of magnitude from those of the same reactions operating under crowded conditions.

[via Wired]

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The Mystery of India’s Rapid Move toward Eurasia 80 Million Year rugged  s Ago

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In this artist’s rendering, the left image shows what Earth looked like more than 140 million years ago, when India was part of an immense supercontinent called Gondwana. The right image shows Earth today.

A newly published study from MIT geologists reveals that a double subduction system may have driven India to drift at high speed toward Eurasia some 80 million years ago.

In the history of continental drift, India has been a mysterious record-holder.

More than 140 million years ago, India was part of an immense supercontinent called Gondwana, which covered much of the Southern Hemisphere. Around 120 million years ago, what is now India broke off and started slowly migrating north, at about 5 centimeters per year. Then, about 80 million years ago, the continent suddenly sped up, racing north at about 15 centimeters per year — about twice as fast as the fastest modern tectonic drift. The continent collided with Eurasia about 50 million years ago, giving rise to the Himalayas.

For years, scientists have struggled to explain how India could have drifted northward so quickly. Now geologists at MIT have offered up an answer: India was pulled northward by the combination of two subduction zones — regions in the Earth’s mantle where the edge of one tectonic plate sinks under another plate. As one plate sinks, it pulls along any connected landmasses. The geologists r intelligent substation  easoned that two such sinking plates would provide twice the pulling power, doubling India’s drift velocity.

The team found relics of what may have been two subduction zones by sampling and dating rocks from the Himalayan region. They then developed a model for a double subduction system, and determined that India’s ancient drift velocity could have depended on two factors within the system: the width of the subducting plates, and the distance between them. If the plates are relatively narrow and far apart, they would likely cause India to drift at a faster rate.

The group incorporated the measurements they obtained from the Himalayas into their new model, and found that a double subduction system may indeed have driven India to drift at high speed toward Eurasia some 80 million years ago.

“In earth science, it’s hard to be completely sure of anything,” says Leigh Royden, a professor of geology and geophysics in M remote access  IT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences. “But there are so many pieces of evidence that all fit together here that we’re pretty convinced.”

Royden and colleagues including Oliver Jagoutz, an associate professor of earth, atmospheric, and planetary sciences at MIT, and others at the University of Southern California have published their results this week in the journal Nature Geoscience.

What drives drift?

Based on the geologic record, India’s migration appears to have started about 120 million years ago, when Gondwana began to break apart. India was sent adrift across what was then the Tethys Ocean — an immense body of water that separated Gondwana from Eurasia. India drifted along at an unremarkable 40 millimeters per year until about 80 million years ago, when it suddenly sped up to 150 millimeters per year. India kept up this velocity for another 30 million years before hitting the brakes — just when the continent collided with Eurasia.

“When you look at simulations of Gondwana breaking up, the plates kind of start to move, and then India comes slowly off of Antarctica, and suddenly it just zooms across — it’s very dramatic,” Royden says.

In 2011, scientists believed they had identified the driving force behind India’s fast drift: a plume of magma that welled up from the Earth’s mantle. According to their hypothesis, the plume created a volcanic jet of material underneath India, which the subcontinent could effectively “surf” at high speed.

However, when others modeled this scenario, they found that any volcanic activity would have lasted, at most, for 5 million years — not nearly enough time to account for India’s 30 million years of high-velocity drift.

Squeezing honey

Instead, Royden and Jagoutz believe that India’s fast drift may be explained by the subduction of two plates: the tectonic plate carrying India and a second plate in the middle of the Tethys Ocean.

In 2013, the team, along with 30 students, trekked through the Himalayas, where they collected rocks and took paleomagnetic measurements to determine where the rocks originally formed. From the data, the researchers determined that about 80 million years ago, an arc of volcanoes formed near the equator, which was then in the middle of the Tethys Ocean.

A volcanic arc is typically a sign of a subduction zone, and the group identified a second volcanic arc south of the first, near where India first began to break away from Gondwana. The data suggested that there may have been two subducting plates: a northern oceanic plate, and a southern tectonic plate that carried India.

Back at MIT, Royden and Jagoutz developed a model of double subduction involving a northern and a southern plate. They calculated how the plates would move as each subducted, or sank into the Earth’s mantle. As plates sink, they squeeze material out between their edges. The more material that can be squeezed out, the faster a plate can migrate. The team calculated that plates that are relatively narrow and far apart can squeeze more material out, resulting in faster drift.

“Imagine it’s easier to squeeze honey through a wide tube, versus a very narrow tube,” Royden says. “It’s exactly the same phenomenon.”

Royden and Jagoutz’s measurements from the Himalayas showed that the northern oceanic plate remained extremely wide, spanning nearly one-third of the Earth’s circumference. However, the southern plate carrying India underwent a radical change: About 80 million years ago, a collision with Africa cut that plate down to 3,000 kilometers — right around the time India started to speed up.

The team believes the diminished plate allowed more material to escape between the two plates. Based on the dimensions of the plates, the researchers calculated that India would have sped up from 50 to 150 millimeters per year. While others have calculated similar rates for India’s dri4g lte router dual SIMft, this is the first evidence that double subduction acted as the continent’s driving force.

“It’s a lucky coincidence of events,” says Jagoutz, who sees the results as a starting point for a new set of questions. “There were a lot of changes going on in that time period, including climate, that may be explained by this phenomenon. So we have a few ideas we want to look at in the future.”

Publication: Oliver Jagoutz, et al., “Anomalously fast convergence of India and Eurasia caused by double subduction,” Nature Geoscience, (2015); doi:10.1038/ngeo2418

Image: iStock (edited by MIT News)

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Silk Fibers May smart grid   Represent Natural Metamaterials, Capable of light Confinement

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New research suggests fibers from a silkworm’s cocoon may represent “natural metamaterials,” a discovery with various technological and scientific implications. Purdue University image/Young Kim

New research has demonstrated how the nano-architecture of a silkworm’s fiber causes “Anderson localization of light,” a discovery that could lead to various innovations and a better understanding of light transport and heat transfer.

The discovery also could help create synthetic materials and structures that realize the phenomenon, named after Nobel laureate Philip Anderson, whose theory describes how electrons can be brought to a complete halt in materials due to their “scattering and defects.” The new findings relate not to electrons, but to light transport.

Researchers demonstrated how the nano-architecture of the silk fibers is capable of light “confinement,” a trait that could provide a range of technological applications including innovations that harness light for new types of medical therapies and biosensing. This light-confinement effect in biological and natural tissue, which was unexpected, is made possible by the Anderson localization of light, said Young Kim, an associate professor in Purdue University’s Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering.

The new findings suggest silk fibers may represent “natural metamaterials” and “natural metastructures,” Kim said.

Various research groups have created synthetic “metamaterials” capable of the ultra-efficient control of light. However, metamaterials have limitations because they are often difficult to scale up for commercial production and pose other challenges. Because silk’s nano-architecture is “disordered” instead of meticulously designed periodic structures, the findings suggest a strategy to produce metamaterials that are less expensive to fabricate and manufacture and easier to scale up for industry.

“This is fascinating because realizing Anderson localization of light is extremely challenging, yet we now know that it can be achieved using irregular, disordered nanostructures to create highly packed nanomaterials for strong light scattering as a silkworm produces a silk fiber and spins a cocoon shell in nature,” Kim said.

The findings are detailed in a paper appearing on Wednesday (January 31) in the journal Nature Communications. The paper’s lead author is Purdue postdoctoral research associate Seung Ho Choi.

“Our findings could open up new possibilities for metamaterials and metastructures,” said Kim, who is leading research to better understand the underlying reasons for silk’s white, silvery and lustrous reflection. “I know this is an oxymoron, but we are saying silk fibers represent ‘natural metamaterials’ and ‘natural metastructures.'”

The silk fibers are 10-20 microns in diameter and contain thousands of tiny nanofibrils, each around 100 nanometers wide. For perspective, a human hair is roughly 100 microns in diameter.

A silk fiber has numerous “scattering centers” inside. Anderson localization arises from this light scattering due to disorder in the nanostructure.

“Silk has many nanofibrils, which individually scatter light,” Kim said.

For the Anderson localization to occur, there must be both scattering and interference between scattered light waves. De 2 sim  nsely packed irregular nanostructures cause light waves to interfere with each other, sometimes in destructive and sometimes in constructive ways. If constructive, the light is intensified.

“If waves are constructively interfering, this forms a very high energy inside the disordered media,” Choi said.

The small size and roughly parallel arrangement of the nanofibrils are conducive to the effect. The scattering power is maximized when there are many scattering centers and when their size is comparable to the wavelength of the light, both criteria found in the silk fibers.

Whereas commercial optical fibers must be specially engineered with a reflective coating, or cladding, to allow for the confinement of light, the silk fibers are able to achieve the feat naturally due to Anderson localization of light. The Anderson localization creates “modes” that make confinement of light possible without carefully engineered periodic structures. Instead, the same confinement is possible with disordered, more random designs.

“We found that most transmission of light disappears in most of the silk surface. HPower Fault Detectionowever, counterintuitively, in a small area we found that the energy is confined, and this confined energy is transmitted through localized modes,” Kim said. “The localized mode is a unique pathway for energy flow.”

Although biological structures such as silk diffuse light, other natural materials with similar microstructures do not possess the localized, modes making Anderson localization of light possible.

“Such a difference makes silk particularly interesting for radiative heat transfer.” Kim said. The silk has a high  wireless communication  emissivity for infrared light, meaning it readily radiates heat, or infrared radiation, while at the same time being a good reflector of solar light. Because the strong reflectivity from Anderson localization is combined with the high emissivity of the biomolecules in infrared radiation, silk radiates more heat than it absorbs, making it ideal for passive, or “self-cooling.”

“You may have heard that silk underwear can keep you cooler in summertime and warmer in winter,” Kim said. “We have learned the basic mechanism behind this observation.”

The work is led by researchers in Purdue’s Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering; the Department of Agricultural Biology of the National Institute of Agricultural Sciences in South Korea; and the Materials and Manufacturing Directorate of the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory. A complete list of co-authors is available in the abstract.

“Our findings could open up largely unexplored opportunities for engineering, energy, and biomedical areas,” Kim said. “However, while direct applications could be possible, we really want to learn from silk to help develop material synthesis and design processes in the future.”

Publication: Seung Ho Choi, et al., “Anderson light localization in biological nanostructures of native silk,” Nature Communications, volume 9, Article number: 452 (2018) doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02500-5

Sources: Emil Venere, Young L. Kim, Seung Ho Choi, Purdue University

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S 4g router   cientists Create a New Graphene-Type Material

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A single macroscopic flake of TGCN.

Researchers create triazine-based graphitic carbon nitride (TGCN), a new material that was predicted theoretically in 1996 with the potential to improve transistors used in electronic devices.

Scientists at the University of L Touchscreen & Vending PC  iverpool have created a new material, related to graphene, which has the potential to improve transistors used in electronic devices.

The new material, ‘triazine-based graphitic carbon nitride’, or TGCN, was predicted theoretically in 1996, but this is the first time that it has been made.

Graphene is one atom thick, strong and conducts heat and electricity highly efficiently. The new TGCN material is also two-dimensional, but it has an electronic band gap, making it potentially suitable for use in transistors.

Carbon-based

At present, transistors are made of expensive silicon that generates heat when used in electronic devices. Scientists have router   been looking for a material that is carbon-based and that has the electronic band gap needed for use as a semiconductor.

Chemist, Professor Andrew Cooper, from the University’s Department of Chemistry, said: “This is an exciting result because there are relatively few ordered two-dimensional organic solids. Finding a new member of the ‘graphene family’ is very significant.”

Starting with the inexpensive molecule dicyandiamide, the team prepared crystals of graphitic carbon nitride, a two-dimensional layered material that is similar to graphene, but which contains nitrogen.

TGCN

They combined these ingredients in a quartz tube and heated them for 62 hours at up to 600°C. The result is a liquid containing flakes of TGCN that can be removed by filtering or peeling them off the quartz tube.

The material is at an early stage of development and Professor Cooper believes the next stage in the research is to explore its properties.

He said: “The creation and analysis of this material is just the first step. We now have a lot more work to do to scale it up and prove function in electronic devices.”

The research project, funded by an Engineering and  Vending Telemetry  Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Program Grant at Liverpool, also involved chemistry, physics, and materials science researchers from across Europe. This team included scientists at Technical University Berlin, Ulm University, Aalto University, Humboldt University Berlin, University College London, University of East Anglia, University of Helsinki, and the Max Planck Institute for Colloids and Interfaces.

Publication: Gerardo Algara-Siller, et al., “Triazine-Based, Graphitic Carbon Nitride: a Two-Dimensional Semiconductor,” 2014, Angewandte Chemie International Edition; doi: 10.1002/anie.201402191

Image: University of Liverpool

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230 Million Year Old Ar industrial cellular vpn router  thropods Found Preserved in Amber

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Arthropods from the Triassic period have been discovered preserved in amber. They are 100 million years older than previous amber inclusions. The two mites and one fly were found in millimeter-scale droplets of amber from northeastern Italy.

Researchers published their findings in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Arthropods are invertebrate animals including insects, arachnids and crustaceans. The specimens were preserved with microscopic fidelity, allowing the estimation of the amount of evolutionary change overintelligent vending machine millions of years. Arthropods are more than 400 million years old, but before now the oldest record of these animals in amber dates to about 130 million years, in the Cretaceous period.

Photomicrographs of Diptera specimen in Dolomite Triassic amber, (A) Entire specimen with dissociated appendages. (B) Head, detail. (C) Detail of antenna and adjacent leg, showing oval s industrial iot  ensory area, possibly Johnston’s organ. (D) Detail of dissociated disti IIoT  tarsus. (E) (F) Dissociated legs

The amber droplets range between 2 to 6 mm in length, were buried in the Dolomite Alps of northeastern Italy and excavated by Eugenio Ragazzi and Guido Roghi of the University of Padova. Over 70,000 droplets were screened for inclusions by a team of German scientists led by Alexander Schmidt, of the Georg-August University in Göttingen.

Two of the specimens are a new species of mites, Triasacarus fedelei and Ampezzoa triassica. They are the oldest fossils of a group called Eriophyoidea, which has about 3,500 living species, all of which feed on plants and sometimes form abnormal growth called galls on their bodies.

T. fedelei and A. triassica fed on a now extinct conifer, but 97% of today’s gall mites feed on flowering plants. These mites existed before the appearance of flowering plants. The mites seemed to have evolved and endured even when flowering plants entered the environment. The fly couldn’t be identified because some of its body parts weren’t well preserved.

There was a huge change in flora and fauna in the Triassic, because it was right after one of the most acute extinction pulses in the geological time record, the Permian-Triassic extinction event, which occurred 252.28 Ma. This could help elucidate how life continued to evolve.

[via PNAS]

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