As you’d expect for a conservative Germanic language, Þȳðsk contains a rich array of morphophonological phenomena with both ablaut and umlaut being significant processes in both inflection and derivation.
Verbs conjugate for number, person, tense, and mood; distinguishing between 1st, 2nd, & 3rd persons; singular, plural, inclusive, & exclusive numbers (2nd person inclusive is used if and only if all referents are present, otherwise the 2nd person exclusive is used); past, & present tenses; and indicative & subjunctive moods (the subjunctive is also used as an imperative and all other irrealis senses). Each verb had four distinct stems.
Nouns decline for case and number; distinguishing between nominative, accusative, genitive, & dative cases; and singular & plural numbers. They occur in six declensions (named after the rune writing the characteristic of that declension) each of which can occur in any of the three genders.
Throughout, superscript a, i, u indicate corresponding umlaut of the preceding vowel
Nouns:
Āssr declension (a/o-stems)
Īsr declension (i-stems)
Ūrr declension (u-stems)
Nōuðr declension (n-stems)
Rǣiðō declension (r-stems)
Daghr declension (consonant stems)
Adjectives:
Adjectives only retain the weak declension, so are identical to the nōuðr declension with all plurals taking the neuter plural forms.
Numbers:
Numbers follow a special, slightly reduced form of the usual adjective declension
Derivational Morphology:
comparatives: take the suffix -er- between the stem and inflectional ending
superlatives: take the suffix -est- between the stem and inflectional ending
adverbs: “-ly”-type adverbs may be formed by 0-derivation from the neuter nominative (the citation form), i.e. “angrily” = “angry-n-nm-sg”
adjectives themselves: “-y”-type adjectives may be derived from nouns with a suffix -gh- after the characteristic consonant or vowel of that declension, and before the adjective stem. Due to historical sound changes, this has split into the following suffices attached directly to a noun’s stem
Āssr declension: take the suffix ᵃ-agh- if masculine or neuter, -ogh- if feminine
Īsr declension: take ⁱ-egh-
Ūrr declension: take ᵘ-ogh-
Nōuðr declension: take ᵃ-eng-
Rǣiðō declension: take -regh-
Daghr declension: take -egh-
Pronouns:
1st & 2nd person and reflexive pronouns:
1st person inclusive is used if there is at least one 2nd person referent, if all other referents are 3rd person, the exclusive is used; 2nd person inclusive is used if and only if all referents are present, otherwise the exclusive is used
The reflexive is used to replace a noun phrase in the sentence if it refers to the identical referent as the first argument mentioned (which will usually be the subject)
3rd person pronouns:
Definite Articles:
Indefinite Articles:
Proximal Demonstrative “this”:
Distal Demonstrative “that”:
Interrogative “who/what”:
Relativiser “which/that”:
this declines for the gender and number in the main clause, and the case in the relative clause. It constitutes the first element of the relative clause so is immediately followed by the conjugated verb
It is a compound of the genitive form of the definite article, and the reflexive pronoun. In poetry, these two parts are sometimes separated
Verbs:
Strong Verbs:
The citation form is the present infinitive; there is also plenty of umlaut, as well as ablaut between the 4 distinct stems (the 4 stems are given unumlauted in the lexicon). These 4 stems are mostly predictable though from the first unumlauted stem as the ablaut is generally regular with the tonic vowel alternating as follows:
In the past tense, the stem of class 1-6 verbs take a prefix ge- or g- (the latter if the verb stem begins in a vowel) attached immediately to the verb stem, before any preverb. In class 7 verbs, the stem reduplicates in the past tense instead i.e. (s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... > (s)(C1)e(s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... Again this reduplication appears before any preverb
Weak Verbs:
Weak verbs follow the same conjugation as strong verbs, mapped onto a specific class depending on the tonic vowel of the verb stem according to the above table specifying the ablaut of originally weak verbs
Again, in the past tense, the stem of class 1-6 verbs take a prefix ge- or g- (the latter if the verb stem begins in a vowel) attached immediately to the verb stem, before any preverb. In class 7 verbs, the stem reduplicates in the past tense instead i.e. (s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... > (s)(C1)e(s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... Again this reduplication appears before any preverb
Preterite-Present Verbs:
Preterite-Present verbs follow the usual past-tense conjugation in the present tense (as in other Germanic languages); unlike other Germanic languages however, they do not have a weak past-tense, but instead a past-tense with the same endings, but with the 4th stem
Preterite-Present verbs follow the same ablaut patterns as weak verbs, derived from the tonic vowel of the verb stem. If this results in a present tense form with a null vowel, an /e/ is inserted instead
Again, in the past tense, the stem of class 1-6 verbs take a prefix ge- or g- (the latter if the verb stem begins in a vowel) attached immediately to the verb stem, before any preverb. In class 7 verbs, the stem reduplicates in the past tense instead i.e. (s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... > (s)(C1)e(s)(C1)...(CN)V(C2)... Again this reduplication appears before any preverb
Umlaut Table:
umlaut is blocked by an intervening nasal, /j/, /v/, /w/, /ʃ/, or /ʒ/
The phonology of Þȳðsk is fairly typical of the old and conservative Germanic languages, featuring both dental fricatives, front rounded vowels, and phonemic vowel length. It's consonant inventory is relatively large, as it retains the dental fricatives, but the vowel inventory is much smaller than that of many modern Germanic languages, with many vowels straightforwardly continuing their Proto-Germanic values
Consonants
All consonants except /ŋ/, /ʒ/, /ɣ/, /ʃ/, /w/, and /j/ can occur as geminates. /r/ is realised as /ɾ/ singly, and /r/ as a geminate, geminate /r/ can also be syllabic if word-finally after a consonant. /x/ appears as /h/ in syllable onset and /x/ in the coda. /s/ voices allophonically between vowels. /ʃ/ & /ʒ/ are almost exclusively realised as affricates /tʃ/ & /dʒ/, with the simple fricative only occurring word-finally
Vowels
Each vowel quality in Þȳðsk appears as a long and a short phone, accompanied by differences in vowel quality as well. The positions of the vowels (labelled with their usual spelling, rather than phonetic transcription) on the vowel chart are shown below
There are eleven diphthongs, which lack a length distinction many of which occur as a result of the three different mutations on the Proto-Germanic diphthongs. The positions of the diphthongs (labelled with their usual spelling, rather than phonetic transcription) on the vowel chart are shown below
As is usual for the Germanic languages, stress is only the first syllable of the root (so excluding any prepositions, reduplicated syllables, or other prefixes)
Latin Orthography
The Þȳðsk alphabet contains the basic latin alphabet as well as four additional letters (æ, ø, þ, and ð). There is a single diacritic, this is usually a macron, but acute accents, dots, and circumflexes are also attested in some texts.
<a> represents /ɐ/
<ā> represents /ɑ:/
<āi> represents /ɑɪ̯/
<āu> represents /aʊ̯/
<æ> represents /æ/
<ǣ> represents /æ:/
<ǣi> represents /æɪ̯/
<b> represents /b/
<c> appears in recent or learned loanwords. Represents /k/ or /s/ if written before <e>, <i>, or <j>
<d> represents /d/
<e> represents /ɛ/
<ē> represents /e:/
<ēa> represents /eɐ̯/
<ēi> represents /ɛɪ̯/
<ēu> represents /ɛʊ̯/
<f> represents /f/
<g> represents /g/
<gh> represents /ɣ/
<gj> represents /dʒ/
<h> represents /x ~h/
<i> represents /ɪ/
<ī> represents /i:/
<j> represents /j/
<k> represents /k/
<kj> represents /tʃ/
<l> represents /l/
<m> represents /m/
<n> represents /n/
<ng> represents /ŋ/
<o> represents /ɔ/
<ō> represents /ɔ:/
<ōa> represents /oɐ̯/
<ōi> represents /ɔɪ̯/
<ōu> represents /ɔʊ̯/
<ø> represents /œ/
<ø̄> represents /œ:/
<ø̄i> represents /œʏ̯/
<ø̄u> represents /œʊ̯/
<p> represents /p/
<q> represents /k/ in recent or learned loanwords
<qu> represents /kf/ in recent or learned loanwords
<r> represents /ɾ/
<s> represents /s/
<sj> represents /ʃ/ which only occurs word-finally in native words, but in recent or learned loanwords can occur in any position (although it is sometimes confused with /tʃ/ in non-final positions)
<t> represents /t/
<u> represents /ʊ/
<ū> represents /u:/
<v> represents /v/
<w> represents /w/
<x> represents /ks/ in recent or learned loanwords
<y> represents /ʏ/
<ȳ> represents /y:/
<z> represents /s/ in recent or learned loanwords
<zj> represents /ʒ/ which only occurs word-finally in native words, but in recent or learned loanwords can occur in any position (although it is sometimes confused with /dʒ/ in non-final positions)
<þ> represents /θ/
<ð> represents /ð/
doubled consonants are geminated
Fuþark Orthography
There is also a runic fuþark orthography which survived well into the modern day and, whilst most Sāuvīlanders usually use the Latin alphabet, the fuþark is still used in some epigraphic contexts, similar to those where Latin might be used in the English-speaking world, and it is widely understood.
It is divided into four ætts (each attributed to a specific Pagan God whose name begins with one of the runes of that ætt) of eight runes, as well as a fifth ætt (attributed to Loki) of eight bindrunes used for numerals in a calque of the Roman numeral system
Neither gemination or vowel length are marked in the fuþark
In Lykjīnrǣihtr, the usual rune equivalent of Roman numberal “I” is identical to īsr, the bindrune ǣin is used whenever a single I would appear in the equivalent Roman numeral
Diphthongs are represented either as a sequence of two runes, or as bindrunes (which are now seen as archaic, similar to spelling Latin juvenis “young” “ivvenis” or using æ or œ ligatures)
You may recognise the banner at the top of this blog as being written in this runic orthography!
Sound Changes
The major sound changes in the history of Þȳðsk are:
i, a, & u umlaut
Holtzmann’s law (in this case Proto-Germanic jj ww > gj gw with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel)
resolution of diphthongs to a reduced set or to long vowels
nasals assimilate to a following consonant (unless it’s a glide) and lengthen the preceding vowel
Proto-Germanic w hw > v w
medial vowels reduce
reduction of -Vr endings to -r, loss of some medial syllables, and simplification of consonant clusters
loss of j before i, e, or y, loss of v & w before u, o, ø, or y with compensatory lengthening
palatalisation of k, g, & ɣ > tʃ, dʒ, & j before i, e, or y and palatalisation of k & g > ʃ & ʒ word-finally after i or ī, and loss of ɣ after i or ī with compensatory lengthening after short i
Þȳðsk is a para-Norse Germanic conlang. As with many of my conlangs, it is spoken in a world, the same as our own, other than the presence of this language’s speakers who live on a handful of islands in the Heligoland bight (the corner between the Northwest coast of Germany, and the West coast of Jutland), lying beyond the our-world islands of Heligoland.
These islands (called the Sāuvīrovjār “Sea Islands” or Sāuvīland “Sea-land” cf Dutch Zeeland &, maybe, Danish Sjæland) provide well sheltered harbours, but little land suitable for grazing or farming. As such, the Sāuvīlanders are traditionally fishers, traders, and raiders. Due to their small population however, they never established any colonies of their own although some Sāuvīlanders did settle in the Anglo-Saxon and later Norse colonies along the North Sea coast of Britain.
The Sāuvīlanders split off from the early Germanic community fairly early and their geographical isolation led to some rather drastic grammatical reworking, whilst their trade links with both Scandinavia, the Frisian Coast, and the Low Countries, kept them in contact with the other Germanic languages with which they share several sound changes.
It has i, a, and u-umlaut (as in the North Germanic languages), although this is blocked by glides and nasals; it follows Holtzmann’s law (PGm *jj and *ww are fortified to gj and gw. cf North and East Germanic); nasals assimilate to the following consonant. There is a loss of many medial syllables, and a reduction of consonant clusters to two or three elements. It also palatalises the velars before front vowels (although in some loanwords, palatalised consonants can appear before back vowels, and unpalatalised velars can appear before front vowels).
Whilst in most Germanic languages, strong verbs (those forming the past tense through vowel changes) being remodelled as weak verbs (those forming the past tense through the addition of a dental suffix cf English -ed) is more common than vice versa, in Þȳðsk, the opposite direction has completely predominated, with all weak verbs being remodelled as strong (taking a class dependent on their tonic vowel). Preterite-present verbs adopt a new past tense form using the same endings, but a new past-tense stem by analogy to one of the strong verb classes again dependent on the tonic vowel. It has a present and past tense, in both the indicative and subjunctive (which serves as a general irrealis mood, also used for imperatives), as well as a present/active & past/passive participle, as well as both a present & past infinitive (the latter innovated, based on the stem changes as a result of the switch to strong verbs).
The dual is preserved in the first and second persons in both pronouns and verbs, where it has been remodelled as a clusivity distinction (with the second person “inclusive” being used if all referents are present, with the second person “exclusive” used in other cases).
There are six declensions preserved, each of which appears in all three genders, and each of which has a name derived from the name of a rune characteristic of their declension. These are the Āssr declension (reflecting PGm a/ō stems), the Īsr declension (reflecting PGm i stems), the Ūrr declension (reflecting PGm u stems), the Nōuðr declension (reflecting PGm n stems), the Rǣiðō declension (reflecting PGm r stems), and the Daghr declension (reflecting PGm consonant stems and root nouns). Adjectives only preserve the weak declension so are identical to the Nōuðr declension.
Due to the combination of the switch to strong verbs, and the influence of i, a, and u-umlaut, there is extensive morphophonological variation in the stems of words. In general, to correctly decline a noun, it is necessary to know the un-umlauted stem although this does not generally occur in any particular case or number and so it must be given explicitly in the dictionary rather than simply giving a principal part. Verbs have four distinct stems, for most verbs, the first stem is used in all present tense forms, the second is used in the past indicative singular, the third in all other finite past forms, and the fourth used in the past participle and past infinitive; in preterite-present verbs, the first stem is used for the present participle and infinitive, the second is used for the present indicative singular forms, the third is used for all other finite present tense forms, and the fourth stem is used for all past tense forms. As with nouns, these unumlauted stems are listed separately in the dictionary. Reduplication in the class 7 verbs is preserved and generalised to all past tense forms of class 7 strong or preterite-present verbs whilst verbs from other classes take a g(e)- prefix in all past-tense forms (wherever class 7 would reduplicate).
Whilst it is nowadays written in the Latin alphabet, a unique fuþark was used well into the modern day (as in Dalarna) and are still occasionally used in some epigraphic contexts (similar to those where Latin might be used in English-speaking areas); this fuþark also features a calqued version of the Roman numeral system derived from a combination of tally marks and bind runes of the consonants in the number they represent (e.g. tøhnā “ten” is represented by a bindrune of ᛏ “t” and ᚾ “n”).
