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The Bayram Festival and the Ceremonies of the Ottoman Court

The Two Bayram Festivals

The writer explains that Muslims in the Ottoman Empire celebrated two important religious festivals each year. He calls these celebrations Bayram, which is the Turkish word for a religious festival or holiday.

The first festival takes place immediately after the month of Ramadan and marks the end of the annual fast. Today it is commonly known as Eid al-Fitr or Ramazan Bayramı in Turkey. The author compares this festival with the Christian celebration of Easter because both follow a period of fasting. However, the two festivals have different religious meanings and origins Kukeri Carnival.

The second festival occurs about seventy days later. Today it is known as Eid al-Adha or Kurban Bayramı. During this festival, Muslims remember the willingness of the Prophet Abraham to obey God and perform acts of charity by sharing the meat of sacrificed animals with family members, friends, and people in need.

Celebrating the Holiday

According to the writer, both Bayram festivals lasted for three days. During this time, people stopped their normal work, visited relatives and friends, exchanged gifts, and enjoyed food and celebrations together. Families gathered to strengthen their relationships, while children especially looked forward to the joyful atmosphere.

The author suggests that these festivals gave people an opportunity to rest after long periods of religious devotion. This reflects his own interpretation of the purpose of the celebrations.

The Beginning of Bayram

The passage explains that the end of Ramadan was determined by the appearance of the new moon. If clouds prevented people from seeing the moon, the beginning of the festival might be delayed by a day. When the sky remained cloudy, the new month was calculated according to the expected course of the lunar calendar.

In Constantinople (modern Istanbul), the arrival of Bayram was announced with the firing of cannons from the area of the imperial palace overlooking the sea. At the same time, the special lamps that had decorated the mosque minarets during Ramadan were no longer lit, marking the end of the holy month. Drums and trumpets were also played in public places, creating an atmosphere of celebration throughout the city.

Ceremonies at the Ottoman Palace

The writer is especially interested in the ceremonies held inside the Topkapı Palace, which he calls the Seraglio. During Bayram, the Ottoman Sultan received high-ranking government officials, military commanders, and court officers in carefully organized ceremonies.

The author observes that every movement during these ceremonies followed strict rules. Officials knew exactly where to stand, when to bow, and how to greet the Sultan. Even small gestures were performed according to long-established traditions. These ceremonies demonstrated respect for the Sultan and reflected the order and discipline of the Ottoman court.

The Author’s Observation

The writer concludes that these formal ceremonies challenged the common European belief that the Turks lacked manners or courtly customs. Instead, he found that Ottoman court life was highly organized and governed by detailed rules of etiquette. Although his work reflects the opinions of a seventeenth-century European observer, he expresses admiration for the dignity, precision, and ceremonial order that he witnessed in the Ottoman palace.

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Criticism and Reputation of the Bektashi Order

Opposition from Religious Authorities

Despite its influence, the Bektashi order was strongly criticized by a group of strict religious scholars known as the Kadizadelis. They considered this order unacceptable and harmful to true religion.

One of their main criticisms was that Haji Bektash allowed his followers freedom in religious practice. In particular, he did not force them to strictly follow fixed prayer times. This flexibility was seen by critics as carelessness and weak discipline.

Because of this freedom, some people believed that the Janissaries, who were connected to the order, became less serious about their religious duties. They were often described as soldiers who were not very strict or devoted in their prayers Istanbul Day Trip.

Views on Faith and Belief

Some songs and sayings attributed to Haji Bektash include the idea that no one has truly seen God, and therefore no one can fully know Him. This idea was interpreted in different ways by different groups.

Strict religious scholars disagreed with such teachings and saw them as dangerous or misleading.

Because of these beliefs, many conservative Muslims called the Janissaries “kafir” or unbelievers. This was a strong accusation meaning that they were considered to be outside true faith.

Religious Legal Opinion (Fatwa)

A famous religious scholar and mufti named Ebussuud was once asked a legal question. The question was whether a Muslim would be punished if he called a Janissary an unbeliever.

The mufti answered that the real problem was deeper: anyone who considers a Janissary to be a true believer is himself acting incorrectly according to strict religious law. This shows how controversial the Janissaries and their religious associations were.

Bektashi Presence in Public Life

Members of the Bektashi order often appeared in public ceremonies and military parades. They were sometimes seen near the Janissary commander, known as the Janissary Agha.

During these events, they would shout the word “Hu” repeatedly, meaning “He (God) lives,” while sometimes carrying drawn daggers as part of their symbolic presence.

Criticism of Their Behavior

The author describes some members of the order in a very negative way, accusing them of immoral behavior and corruption. These claims reflect the strong bias of some historical writers and religious opponents.

Because of their close relationship with the Janissaries, the Bektashi order grew very large and influential. However, critics believed that this growth also increased moral problems within the military system.

Attempts at Reform

Some authorities tried to reduce the influence of the order and reform the military system. They saw the spread of these practices as a kind of “disease” affecting discipline in the army.

However, the process of reform was slow and difficult, and the influence of the Bektashi order continued for a long time.

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Influence of a Prince on His Subjects

Where the example of a ruler permits certain actions, his subjects—whether soldiers or lawyers—often follow without hesitation. They believe that if a prince can act in a particular way, it must be lawful, and they imitate him freely, regardless of what the law actually says. This demonstrates how the behavior of leaders directly influences the moral and religious conduct of their people.

Rejection of Religious Precepts

You reject certain verses of the Alcoran, particularly the passage called “The Covering,” which is revealed for the sake of holiness. You deny the eighteen other verses that are meant to guide proper religious conduct. These rejections are serious errors in the eyes of orthodox law, as they undermine clear instructions for worship and morality Daily Ephesus Tours.

Improper Personal Practices

Even in daily habits, your practices are contrary to the law. At ablution, you do not wash the feet properly, only lightly brushing over them, instead of performing the full washing as prescribed. Your mustaches remain uncut, while the beard—considered the honorable ornament of a man’s face—is trimmed or shaped however you please.

You misuse sacred symbols as well. The color green, which belongs to the banner of Mahomet and should be treated with respect, is used improperly on your shoes and clothing. This shows a lack of reverence for religious symbols and traditions.

Violations in Food and Drink

You also violate religious rules regarding food and drink. Wine, which is forbidden to true followers of the law, is consumed freely. There is no distinction between what is clean and unclean; all foods are eaten indiscriminately. Such behavior demonstrates both moral and ritual negligence.

In short, there are at least seventy points where your actions and beliefs are in error. They show corruption of conduct, irreverence to sacred symbols, and rejection of key religious laws. A full account of these mistakes could f

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The Mahometan Representation of Heaven

The Mahometan religion presents a very physical and material view of heaven. It describes delights for the followers with gross and exaggerated ideas, such as the beauty of women with large eyes, the promise of sexual pleasure lasting for decades, and the satisfaction of gluttonous appetites.

These ideas may seem absurd and ridiculous to wise and knowledgeable people, yet they were powerful in attracting followers. Many were drawn to the religion not because of its moral or spiritual teachings but because of these sensual and material promises. This helped Mahometanism gain large numbers of devoted and sometimes carnal defenders.

Doubts Among Scholars

However, these descriptions also caused doubt and skepticism among more educated and thoughtful Turks, particularly among the lawyers and scholars. These men, who were trained in subtle reasoning, often found the promises of bodily pleasures in the afterlife inconsistent with reason. Because these teachings seemed irrational and exaggerated, they sometimes questioned the truth of the entire Mahometan system Istanbul Private Tours.

The Gap Between Reason and Faith

This approach created a gap between rational judgment and religious belief. The sensual depiction of paradise was difficult for wise men to accept, and this led to a certain mistrust or hesitation in fully embracing the faith. They could not reconcile their understanding of logic with the material descriptions of heaven.

Possibility for More Reasoned Religion

One might think that these skeptical men were ready for a religion based on more solid principles, grounded in reason and moral foundation. In fact, much of Mahometanism borrowed from Jewish traditions, and it is possible that the Jews could have gained more thoughtful followers if their teachings had been presented in a way that appealed to reason and understanding, rather than just to the desires of the body.

In summary, Mahometanism’s focus on material rewards in the afterlife helped it grow quickly and attract followers, but it also caused doubt among the more rational and educated. Its reliance on sensual promises made it both popular among the masses and suspect among the thoughtful, showing a tension between faith and reason within the religion.

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Hungarian Allegiance and the Emperor

Many Hungarians were reluctant to remain fully loyal to the Holy Roman Emperor. The Emperor did not offer them freedom of religion, which the Hungarians considered essential for their spiritual well-being. At the same time, the Emperor was unable to protect them from the Ottoman Turks, showing that he could not ensure their safety in worldly matters. For this reason, many Hungarians considered aligning with the Turks rather than remaining under the Emperor’s control.

The Emperor’s Diplomacy

To maintain influence, the Emperor sent his ambassador to the Ottoman court. He claimed to represent the King of Hungary, since his role as Emperor involved constant conflict with the Ottomans. In reality, peace between the Emperor and the Turks was often fragile, interrupted by frequent raids and skirmishes. Small battles involving fewer than 5,000 troops, without the use of cannons or sieges, were not considered violations of existing agreements, so minor conflicts were common Private Tours Balkan.

The French King and Ottoman Relations

The King of France held a special position among Christian rulers. Even though France did not share a border with Ottoman lands, the French king was allowed to enter into trade agreements, or capitulations, with the Turks. He also received the title “Podjilsaro,” which signified an honor similar to that of an emperor but was normally reserved for the Ottoman Sultan. Despite this title, the Turks did not fully respect the French king in practice. Ambassadors often reported scorn and neglect by the Ottoman court, showing that formal titles did not always translate into actual influence.

The Story of a French Lady

There is a famous story connected to this arrangement. A French lady was chosen for the Ottoman Seraglio, the Sultan’s palace, and the Turks treated her as a princess. This connection was seen as symbolically linking France and the Ottoman court. However, as many observers noted, these gestures were often more ceremonial than practical, and they did not give France the full respect or power that outsiders might expect.

In short, the Ottomans carefully balanced religion, politics, and diplomacy to maintain their influence over neighboring lands. They respected titles and ceremonial gestures, but true loyalty and authority were judged by practical strength and strategic advantage, rather than appearances or agreements alone. Foreign princes, whether the Emperor of Germany or the King of France, learned that real influence required careful negotiation, respect for Ottoman customs, and constant attention to both military and diplomatic realities.

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Primary Schools and Population in Bulgaria

Distribution of Schools

The statistical tables for the school year 1903-1904 show that almost all schools of the different nationalities in Bulgaria were mixed schools, including those of the Mahommedans and Tartars.

Of all the schools in Bulgaria, 75.27% were Bulgarian—this includes national, private, Protestant, Catholic, and Mahommedan schools. The remaining 24.73% belonged to other nationalities, such as Turkish, Greek, Jewish, French, German, Armenian, Roumanian, and Lipovane.

Schools Compared to Population

According to the census of January 1, 1901, the Principality of Bulgaria had a total population of 3,744,283, with 1,909,567 males and 1,834,716 females.

During the school year 1903-1904, there were 4,344 schools, which means there was approximately one school for every 862 people Customised Private Istanbul Tour.

However, this proportion varies among different nationalities:

For the Bulgarian population (2,887,860), there was one school for every 943 inhabitants.

For the Mahommedan population (539,656), one school for every 563 inhabitants.

For the Greek population (70,887), one school for every 1,337 inhabitants.

For the Jewish population (32,573), one school for every 1,018 inhabitants.

This shows that smaller minority communities often had fewer schools per person compared to the majority Bulgarian population.

Number of Students

The total number of students in all schools was 340,668, including 220,620 boys and 120,048 girls. The distribution by nationality was as follows:

Schools Boys Girls Total Students Bulgarian national 167,760 94,541 262,301 Bulgarian private 1,243 505 1,748 Bulgarian Mahommedan 805 343 1,148 Bulgarian Catholic 246 196 442 Bulgarian Protestant 113 104 217 Turkish 23,537 20,051 43,588 Greek 3,173 1,673 4,846 Jewish 2,694 1,659 4,353 Armenian — 367 793 French — 297 309 Tartar — 141 115 German — 115 88 Roumanian — 139 109 Lipovane — — 16

Observations

These statistics show that the Bulgarian schools accounted for the vast majority of students, reflecting the size of the Bulgarian population. Minority communities had smaller numbers of schools and students, but all had access to education according to the national law.

The data also highlight the importance of mixed schools, which helped promote education for both boys and girls across all nationalities in the Principality.

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Limits on Extraordinary Expenditure

One of the most important rules introduced by the new Law of Budgetary Accounts was the restriction on extraordinary credits. In the past, governments often created special funds for exceptional expenses, which placed a heavy burden on the State Budget and damaged financial stability. The new law put an end to this practice.

From that time forward, extraordinary expenditure could not exceed two million francs. Of this amount, one million was charged to the budget of the current year, according to Article 126 of the Constitution, while the other one million was carried over to the budget of the following year. No additional extraordinary credits could be created unless new sources of revenue were identified to cover them. This rule protected the financial health of the State and prevented governments from overspending.

Law on the Collection of Direct Taxes

The second reform was a Law for the Collection of Direct Taxes, which was sanctioned by royal decree on March 14th, 1905 and published in the Official Journal on March 23rd, 1905. This law introduced new measures to ensure the prompt and efficient collection of taxes. It strengthened the ability of the government to collect money owed by citizens, which in turn improved the reliability of State income Istanbul Tours Guide.

Law on Duties for Property Transfers

Another important reform was the Law on Duties for Property Transfers, ratified by Royal Decree No. 57 on January 13th, 1905, and published in the Official Journal on April 4th, 1905. This law created a progressive tax on inherited estates. It also increased the tax on gifts and reduced the number of people who had previously managed to avoid paying duties on personal property. By doing so, it made the tax system fairer and more effective.

Law on Excise and Alcohol Licenses

Finally, a Law on Excise and Licenses for Alcoholic Drinks was passed. It was ratified by royal decree on January 31st, 1905 and published in the Official Journal on the same day. Before this reform, not all alcoholic drinks were taxed, which meant that the State lost a significant amount of revenue. The new law introduced a more stable system of taxation, making sure that all alcoholic beverages were subject to excise duty.

This law also marked the first attempt to place the production and sale of alcohol under strict State control, both for financial reasons and for better regulation of the market.

Together, these financial reforms greatly strengthened the Bulgarian State’s revenue system. By limiting extraordinary spending, improving tax collection, creating fairer property duties, and regulating alcohol sales, the government built a more stable and predictable financial system. These measures ensured that the country’s finances were better protected and more capable of supporting future development.

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Principles of Bulgarian Law

The laws of Bulgaria were designed to respect the religious and civil rights of all citizens. People of different religions were allowed to exercise their civil and political rights without restriction and could hold public office. This was an important guarantee of equality for a country with a diverse population.

Commercial and International Relations

Bulgaria’s commercial relations were also regulated carefully. Commercial treaties concluded with the Ottoman Empire (the Porte) were binding on Bulgaria, and no changes could be made without the agreement of the Power involved. Transit duties could not be charged on goods passing through Bulgaria, protecting the freedom of trade. The rights and privileges of foreign subjects, including the right to consular jurisdiction and protection, were to remain valid until formally changed with the consent of the Powers concerned.

Tribute and Legal Authority

Bulgaria was required to pay tribute to Turkey and to participate in the debts of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgarians traveling in Turkey were subject to Turkish law and authorities, maintaining order and recognition of Ottoman sovereignty outside Bulgaria Guided Tours Turkey.

Autonomy and Sovereignty

While these provisions might suggest that Bulgaria had limited independence, the Treaty of Berlin clearly stated that immediately after the election of the Prince, Bulgaria would enjoy complete autonomy. This meant that in practice, Bulgaria became self-governing from the start. Over time, Bulgaria strengthened its government, gradually moving beyond the status of a vassal and tributary principality of 1878.

Modern Developments

As Bulgaria grew stronger, it was able to abolish the capitulations with the consent of all parties involved, stop paying tribute, and negotiate commercial treaties independently. Relations with Turkey became a matter of mutual agreement, and Bulgaria’s sovereignty increasingly depended on its political, moral, and military strength. Each day brought greater autonomy and recognition of Bulgaria as a sovereign state in the international community.

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The Walls Along the Golden Horn

The harbour fortifications of Constantinople were built to protect the city from attacks coming from the sea. These strong walls stretched along the Golden Horn, covering the area from the Acropolis (today’s Seraglio Point) to the point where the land walls ended at Blachernae. According to the traveler Bondelmontius, the Golden Horn walls were reinforced with about one hundred and ten towers.

Unlike the great land walls, these fortifications consisted mostly of a single line of defense. Still, they were extremely important, as they protected the northern side of the Byzantine capital, which was always vulnerable to naval attacks.

The Location of the Walls

The harbour walls were built at a short distance from the water. This was done to allow space for commercial activities and the heavy traffic of the port. However, this narrow strip of land outside the walls was much smaller in ancient times than it is today. Over the centuries, earth and rubble deposits extended the land outward, giving the present shore a different shape Bulgaria Tours.

This difference in distance explains an important historical event. During the Fourth Crusade, in 1203 and 1204, the Venetian fleet was able to bring its ships so close to the Golden Horn walls that soldiers could fight face to face with the defenders. In at least one case, a flying bridge was extended from a Venetian ship directly to a tower of the wall. This allowed the attackers to cross over and capture the tower. Such an action would be impossible at the current distance between the shore and the walls, except perhaps near Seraglio Point.

The Strategic Importance of the Golden Horn

The Golden Horn was one of the most vital parts of Constantinople. It served both as a commercial harbor and as a line of defense. Any enemy who managed to break through here could easily threaten the heart of the city. That is why the Byzantines invested great effort in maintaining and repairing these fortifications whenever danger approached.

The walls along the harbour did not just protect trade; they also represented the wealth and power of the empire. Merchants, sailors, and foreign visitors arriving at Constantinople first saw these defenses, which stood as a reminder of the city’s strength.

The Gates of the Harbour Walls

One of the most notable features of the Golden Horn fortifications was their gates. These gates provided controlled access between the city and the waterfront.

To the east of the Xylo Porta (the “Wooden Gate”), a break in the wall shows the location of a gate that the Ottomans later named Küçük Aivan Serai Kapısı, meaning “the Small Gate of Aivan Serai.” This gate was connected by a short street leading southwards to the famous Church of the Theotokos at Blachernae. To the north, it opened onto the Aivan Serai landing place, which served as a small port for that district of the city.

It is believed that this gate was once known as the Porta Kiliomene. Historical records suggest that Byzantine emperors used this very gate when they arrived by water to visit the Church of the Theotokos or the nearby Blachernae Palace. The Senate would receive the emperor here, marking the gate as a ceremonial entrance.

Legacy of the Golden Horn Walls

The walls along the Golden Horn remind us of the city’s long struggle for survival. They were not as strong as the massive land walls, but they played a critical role in protecting the city’s northern front. Over the centuries, these walls witnessed crusaders, Genoese fleets, Ottoman forces, and countless merchants passing by.

Today, much of the Golden Horn shoreline has changed, yet traces of these fortifications still tell the story of Byzantium’s determination to defend its great capital.

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Greece A Railway Journey from Corfu to Corinth

In Greece, there is a narrow-gauge railway that runs from Patras to Corinth. This railway follows the Gulf of Corinth, crossing a ridge that divides the isthmus and continues along the shore of the Saronic Gulf to the capital, Athens. Altogether, there are about 600 miles of railway in operation across Greece, though 300 miles of track have been abandoned Private Sofia Tours.

Abandoned Railroads and Their Importance

You can still find the tracks of the abandoned railroads in different parts of the country. One of the most important routes that was never finished was meant to run through Thessaly (the northern part of Greece) and reach the Turkish border. If it had been completed, this railroad would have been very beneficial for the whole country. The people of southern Greece don’t grow enough food to meet their needs, while northern Greece has plenty of food to spare.

The difference in bread prices between the Peloponnesus (southern Greece) and Thessaly (northern Greece) is extremely high. This is because Thessaly lacks many markets, while southern Greece has few farms. The railroad was supposed to help balance this situation by transporting food, but unfortunately, it was never finished. The rails now lie rusting, and some are even stolen for scrap metal.

Brindisi Gateway to the East

Brindisi, located in Italy, is the main gateway to the East. The steamers that travel to India, China, and Japan stop there, as well as those carrying passengers to and from Paris, London, Berlin, and other European cities. This makes it easier for travelers to avoid a long sea voyage from Bremen and Hamburg (in Germany) and from London and Havre (in France). Instead, they can take a train across Europe.

Special trains with dining cars and sleepers are arranged in connection with these steamers. These trains carry passengers and mail, allowing travelers to reach Paris and Berlin in about 36 hours, and London in 48 hours from Brindisi.

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The Location of the Cistern of Bonus

Dr. Strzygowski proposed that the Cistern of Bonus might have been located near Eski Ali Pasha Djamissi, on the northern bank of the Lycus Valley, to the southwest of the Mosque of Sultan Mehmed. However, there have been no traces of a cistern found in this area. Despite this, Strzygowski’s suggestion is reasonable when considering its proximity to the line of Constantine’s Wall and the Church of the Holy Apostles.

Yet, the choice of this location for a summer palace remains unclear. The area might have been cool and suitable for such a purpose, but without further evidence, it’s hard to explain why this spot was specifically chosen for the palace.

The Constantinian Wall and Its Route

The Constantinian Wall, after passing the Cistern of Aspar, turns sharply to the north-east. The wall continues towards the shore of the Golden Horn by crossing the ridge of the Fifth Hill at an oblique angle. This direction is important for two reasons Private Sofia Tour.

Why the Wall Took This Route

First, this route helps keep the width of the city within the dimensions specified in the Notitia, an important source of information about the city’s layout. According to the Notitia, the city’s Eleventh Region did not extend all the way to the Golden Horn. The document clearly states: “Nulla parte mari sociata est,” which translates to “No part [of the region] is connected to the sea.”

This statement implies that the northern fortifications of the city, in the Eleventh Region, were not near the water but set back from it. This further explains why the fortifications along the northern front of the city must have been positioned at a distance from the Golden Horn.

The Geography of the Fifth Hill

The Fifth Hill slopes steeply toward the Golden Horn, so there wasn’t much available land for building on this side of the city. The only usable space for the fortifications in this area would have been the plateau of the Fifth Hill. This location is where the large cistern beside the Mosque of Sultan Selim can be found.

While Dr. Strzygowski’s suggestion about the Cistern of Bonus location is reasonable based on the proximity to significant landmarks, there is still no physical evidence to confirm it. Additionally, the path taken by the Constantinian Wall was essential for maintaining the boundaries of the city as described in the Notitia. The geography of the Fifth Hill limited where fortifications could be built, which led to the positioning of key structures along its plateau.

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Arte Hotel

Location: B-3, bul. Knyaz Dondukov 5 Contact: Tel: [phone]

Arte Hotel opened at the end of 2005 and is located in a great central spot on a busy boulevard in Sofia. Even though the area can be noisy with the city’s famous screechy trams, the hotel is well soundproofed, so you can expect a peaceful night’s sleep.

The hotel owner loves art and has decorated the halls and restaurant with a beautiful collection of modern Bulgarian paintings. This makes the hotel feel unique and creative, fitting well with its name.

Rooms at Arte Hotel are modern and stylish, with white walls and decorations in warm terracotta or chocolate colors. Every room has a flat-screen TV for your entertainment. Breakfast is not included in the room price and costs an extra €10 per person Bulgaria Private Tour.

Atlantic Hotel

Location: H-8, ul. 19a 2, Simeonovo Contact: Tel: [phone]

Atlantic Hotel is located in Simeonovo, a quiet suburb on the lower slopes of Mount Vitosha. This hotel is perfect for guests looking for a peaceful, luxurious retreat outside the busy city.

The building looks impressive with two fancy turrets and feels very cozy inside. Bathrooms are a bit small, but the rooms are comfortable. One of the highlights is the restaurant on the top floor, which offers lovely views of Sofia.

Best Western Hotel Europe

Location: G-8, ul. Liditse 1 Contact: Tel: [phone]

Best Western Hotel Europe is a modern hotel on a quiet suburban street. The rooms are decorated in bright, cheerful citrus colors that create a fresh and happy atmosphere.

Some rooms have large bathrooms with bathtubs, but this is not guaranteed for every booking. The hotel’s top floor has a Sky Bar that offers fantastic views looking west towards the city and south towards Mount Vitosha.

Best Western Hotel Expo

Location: G-8, bul. Tsarigradsko shose 149 Contact: Tel: 817 81

Best Western Hotel Expo is an elegant business hotel located halfway between Sofia’s airport and city center. The hotel has a modern design with stylish details and interesting artwork in the rooms.

The staff is very professional and helpful. However, the hotel is in a plain part of town, so the views from the windows are not very exciting.

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Greek Army Actions and the Murder of Eulogius

The Bombardment and Surrender

On June 17th, the Greek Army bombarded a house in Salonika where a small Bulgarian force was stationed. By the next day, June 18th, the Bulgarians surrendered.

On June 18th, the Greeks arrested Eulogius, the Vicar of the Bulgarian Archbishop of Salonica. He was put on board a Greek steamer called the “Mariette Ralli”. Later that evening, he was transferred to another ship, the “Catherine”, where he was treated cruelly Guided Turkey Tours .

On June 19th, the ship set sail, but only three hours later, Eulogius was stabbed and thrown into the sea. The official Greek account claimed that he was killed while fighting in the streets of Salonika, but the Carnegie Commission states that this is not true.

Greek Army Actions Begin

The violent actions of the Greek Army began on July 4th with the first conflict in Kukush. On July 7th, further violence occurred in Demir-Hissar.

On July 12th, King Constantine ordered reprisals based on the events in Demir-Hissar. However, the Carnegie Commission notes that the Greek reprisals started several days before the Bulgarian provocation.

Destruction of Kukush

When the Greek Army entered Kukush, the town was still intact. But today, Kukush is nothing but ruins. The Carnegie Commission points out that the Greek Army started the second war by deliberately burning a Bulgarian town—Kukush.

A Call for Reflection

The Commission concludes by highlighting that if the Greeks had remembered the biblical saying, “Let him who is without sin cast the first stone,” they might have hesitated before launching a campaign based on falsehoods and violence that ended up hurting them severely.

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Bulgaria's Involvement in the 1968 Prague Spring

During the Prague Spring of 1968, Bulgaria took part in a Soviet-led invasion to suppress the political reforms happening in Czechoslovakia. The Bulgarian military played an active role in this operation, which was part of the larger Soviet effort to maintain strict control over Eastern Europe.

Bulgarian Military Units’ Tasks

As part of the intervention, the 12th Regiment of the Bulgarian army was assigned to take control of the cities of Banska Bistritsa and Zvolen, located in Slovakia. Their mission was to disarm the Czechoslovakian military units stationed in these areas. Meanwhile, the 22nd Regiment was tasked with taking control of the airports near Prague, specifically the Ruzyne and Vodohosti airports.

The soldiers involved were conscripts, meaning they were required to serve in the military, and most of them were unaware of their exact mission until the very last moment. For many of these young soldiers, the situation was a shock, especially when they encountered protesting students in the streets of Czechoslovakia. As some soldiers later reported, they were deeply disturbed by the sight of Czechoslovakian boys and girls, who were about the same age, standing in front of their tanks, protesting the invasion Customized Tour Istanbul.

One soldier from the 22nd Regiment lost his life during the mission. Although this may seem like a small casualty in the larger context, it highlights the violence and danger involved in the invasion.

Psychological Impact on Bulgarian Soldiers

The conscripted soldiers were shocked and experienced psychological trauma after being sent to Czechoslovakia. Many of these young men were not prepared to face the moral dilemma of having to suppress a peaceful protest led by people their own age. This emotional burden stayed with them long after the events ended. The trauma caused by seeing their peers stand up against their tanks remained a deeply troubling memory for many soldiers.

Political Repression in Bulgaria After the Prague Spring

In the wake of the Prague Spring, the Bulgarian Communist Party, led by the Politburo, pursued a hardline approach to prevent any similar movements within Bulgaria. The party’s primary goal was to maintain strict control over information that could influence Bulgarian society. The Communist regime tightened its grip on freedom of speech, especially among intellectuals and young people.

The Communist authorities increased their surveillance and pressure on artists, writers, and anyone who might oppose the regime’s policies. This period marked a return to the cultural stagnation that had occurred earlier between 1947 and 1958. Artistic freedom was restricted, and the government closely monitored anyone expressing non-conformist views.

The Role of State Security

As writer Georgi Markov later noted, following the events in Czechoslovakia, the State Security and its ideological departments grew significantly in strength. They expanded their power and took full control over all forms of ideological expression. Markov himself became a target of the State Security after he criticized the Bulgarian Communist regime. In 1978, Markov was murdered in London, likely because of his outspoken opposition to the government.

The events of 1968 had a profound impact on both Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. For Bulgaria, the military intervention marked a strong commitment to Soviet-led policies. However, it also caused significant psychological trauma for the Bulgarian soldiers involved, who were forced to take part in an invasion they did not fully understand. Meanwhile, in the political and cultural sphere, the Communist regime tightened its control, ensuring that any form of dissent would be harshly suppressed, leaving a lasting impact on Bulgarian society.

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Kurşunlu Monastery

The Kurşunlu Monastery is located about 10-12 kilometers from Davutlar. It can be reached by an unpaved road to the right of Cumhuriyet Square. The monastery is built at an altitude of 600 meters, similar to the House of Mary in Ephesus. It was constructed during the Byzantine period.

The monastery has a courtyard with a church surrounded by several buildings, including a storeroom, dining hall, kitchen, friar rooms, cistern, and a cemetery.

The Greeks called this monastery “Panaghia Kurshuniatissa.” The word “Panaghia” means “The Saints of all Saints” and refers to the Virgin Mary. They also called the House of Virgin Mary in Ephesus “Panaghia Kapulu,” which means “the door of the Saint of all Saints.”

The monastery is surrounded by forest and unfortunately, treasure hunters have destroyed most of its frescoes over time. The name of the monastery comes from its leaded dome Customized Tour Bulgaria.

Priene

Priene is located next to Güllubahçe Village. It sits on a terrace that overlooks the plain, which was once silted by the Meander River. Founded around 350 BC, Priene was not a large city, but it was politically very important. It housed the sacred Altar of Poseidon, a symbol of the twelve cities of the Panionian Confederation.

Priene is famous for its well-preserved architecture, including the temple of Athena, a sanctuary dedicated to Alexander the Great, and an amazing theatre. The theatre has the altar of Dionysus, the god of spectacle and enjoyment, and the special seats for local dignitaries are still intact.

The Bouleterion (the council chamber with 640 seats) and the Prytaneion (office for the executive committee) are other interesting places to visit in Priene.

Miletus

Miletus is a quiet, ancient ruin that has little visible evidence of its golden age during the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Few cities in ancient times achieved such power and brilliance.

Miletus was a center for gathering knowledge from civilizations, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Great thinkers like Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes studied nature and developed ideas that were as advanced as today’s modern science.

[travelsinser]

A Difficult Journey to Berat

Starting the Journey

Berat is located almost directly south of Elbasan, but I don’t know the exact distance. In the East, people don’t measure by distance but by how long it takes. The journey to Berat took fourteen hours, with only two short breaks of half an hour each. It rained for almost the entire trip, except for the last half hour.

We were supposed to leave at 2 AM. My Albanian guide, my dragoman, and I were ready, but the Turkish soldiers didn’t want to leave in the rain and darkness. After two days in Elbasan, with its coffee houses and cheap tobacco, the soldiers had become lazy Istanbul Day Tours.

Delays and Difficulties

Eventually, some of the soldiers were ready, and we started our journey. The guide led the way on a slow horse that made a lot of noise but didn’t move very quickly. We made our way through the dark streets of Elbasan, passing ducks and soldiers.

[travelsinser]

Villages and Tensions in Macedonia

We passed through a Bulgarian village, a Greek village, and a mixed village. In the mixed village, the Greek priest had become very disliked by the Bulgarians. He and his two daughters were murdered, but no one knows who did it!

Spies and Espionage

Spies are everywhere in this region. The system of spying is very much a part of Eastern culture. One day, news came to Constantinople that prisoners in the Drama prison were being mistreated. A respected religious man, or hodja, was sent to Drama. He was invited to stay with the Governor as a guest, but he disappeared. A watch was also stolen, so a chase began. He was soon caught and thrown into prison as a thief and an imposter. It turned out that he was a spy sent from Constantinople Who we are.

Conflicts Between Greeks and Bulgarians

We came across a well built by a good Bulgarian. It had a plaque with his name on it. The Greeks in the village smashed the well, and when the Bulgarian man was dying, the Greeks gathered around his house and mocked him.

Throughout Macedonia, I never heard anything good said about the Greeks. The Turks often joke about them, calling them “the runners” because of how they fled from the Sultan’s troops in the Turko-Greek War. The Greek people, however, often spoke very harshly and violently. One day, while Greeks were talking in Drama, someone shot a dog in the street. The Greeks were terrified, held each other, and then locked themselves in their houses. They thought a group of Bulgarians had attacked.

Political Murders and Tensions in Mixed Villages

In one village, both Turks and Bulgarians lived together. The village had about 1,200 people, but they were all starving and scared when our horses entered the area. There had been political murders of Bulgarians, and although the Greeks were blamed, it seemed that fellow Bulgarians had committed the crimes. These people didn’t support the revolution and might have been reporting to the Turks.

While Captain Smyly was investigating, the village leaders—both Turk and Bulgar—gathered around. We were surprised to find that a few Bulgarian “teachers” had chosen this poor village for their holiday spot. We knew they were spies for the Bulgarian revolutionaries—and they knew that we knew.