PSYC 372

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Sleep

Sleep is an absolute necessity amongst the human population. Not only does it provide physical rest, but it is also quite important for physiological repair, consolidating of memories, and clearing products of metabolism from the brain. Despite acknowledging its overall importance,sleep is a topic that I would not typically associate with much cultural variation as I assumed the majority of the human population follow similar sleep patterns. However, it was interesting to discover while reading the textbook the clear cross-cultural differences in sleep habits worldwide.

One aspect that stood out the most to me was how in some cultures, children co-sleep in the same bed as their parents, whereas in others, it is more common for children to sleep separately. This can play a major role in child development as co-sleeping may eliminate the child’s ability to self sooth, however, it can also create a stronger parent-child bond. There is also evidence found in cultures where children co-sleep with their parents that when the child grows up, their education is a matter that is decided by the family and marriages are often arranged by the parents. Alternatively, sleeping separately may aid in developing the child’s independence as well as learning how to individually self-sooth before falling asleep.

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Physical Health

Although human physiology is essentially the same across the world, there are noticeable differences in the process of how illness is delivered and appears in different cultural settings. This is influenced by the biological variability of humans as humans in various parts of the world were subject to different selection pressures over generations, resulting in the human genome diverging across different populations. In addition, people living in diverse locations have experiences within their lifetimes that have an impact on their biology. Humans evolve and develop in response to environmental factors. As a result, specific traits are often specific to particular cultures and differ in others. For example, skin color represents genetic variability due to the body’s ability to synthesize vitamin D.

There are also genetic adaptations to local climate, altitude, and pathogens (genomes that are influenced by geographical factors). For example, If I were to live anywhere else in the world, it would most likely be difficult for me to adapt to the different levels of altitude. The 4,000 m of elevation of a country like Peru, for example, would be a drastic difference in comparison to Nova Scotia’s maximum elevation of 500 m. A result of such drastic altitude change is altitude sickness. The local Peruvians are not affected by altitude sickness, however, as their genomes are altered by these geographical factors.

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Culture-Bound Disorders

Although human physiology is essentially the same across all cultures, many apparent differences in the ways that psychological disorders are manifested across cultural settings. As a result, cultural differences have a direct impact on mental health across the world. There are many culture-bound disorders that are uniquely linked to certain groups, however, there are also culturally universal disorders and approaches to treating mental health disorders.A psychological disorder can be difficult to define as certain behaviours appear as a disorder among some cultures but do not in other cultures. For example, Western categories of mental illness may not reflect universal categories of mental illness. Disorders that are greatly influenced by culture either do not occur in other cultures or are manifested in different ways. Eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia are considered somewhat universal, although bulimia is more culture-bound. These disorders are rising globally due to changing cultural standards, making individuals feeling pressured to conform. A more historical culture-bound disorder example would include hysteria. This disorder was diagnosed in the mid 19th century, associated with Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Symptoms included fainting, temporary blindness, a general tendency to cause trouble, insomnia, and/or sudden paralysis. Hysteria is not in the current DSM as some of the symptoms are now associated with other disorders. Amok is another example of a culture-bound disorder. It is associated with extreme homicidal violence, preceded by brooding and afterward rage, exhaustion, and amnesia. It is correlated with alcohol consumption, lack of sleep, and perhaps the overarching passive Southeast Asian culture that gives few outlets to aggression.

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Acculturation

Acculturation is the process by which people migrate to and learn a culture that is different from their original culture. There are few commonalities that occur for all acculturating individuals and there are often challenges to identify common patterns. For example, moving to a new culture involves psychological adjustments such as acquiring a new language, new interpersonal social behaviors, becoming accustomed to new values, often becoming a memory of a minority group, and adjusting one’s ‘self-concept’. Changes in attitude toward the host culture are an essential pattern of adjustment to acculturation. In the first few months, people have very positive feelings about the host culture, but over time, negative feelings may overcompensate and are associated with culture shock.

The success of people’s acculturation experiences is influenced by the homogeneity of the society to which they are trying to acculturate. The greater the cultural fit, the more easily people will adjust to it. Changes in lifestyle that come with acculturation are often all associated with a variety of health outcomes, such as American culture and weight gain. As a result, Japanese individuals who acculturated to a U.S. lifestyle have an increased risk for heart disease. Other disadvantages of acculturation may include active discrimination, unjust treatment, mocking, humiliation, and violence. There are ultimately numerous complex factors associated with acculturation, making it difficult to study.

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Self-Esteem and Self-Enhancement

Research reveals that people have a strong desire to view themselves positively, with high levels of self-esteem. In addition, there is evidence for self-enhancement and self-esteem motivations in measures that reveal a self-serving bias. A self-serving bias refers to the tendency for people to exaggerate their positive characteristics. A variety of experiments have been conducted with elementary school children, high school students, college students, and working adults. In college professors, for example, almost all believed they were better than the average professor. While having confidence is a beneficial personal trait, there must be a balance to ensure you remain in touch with reality. It is difficult to establish a personal level of self-esteem as there is no evidence to prove an individual is not above average. The common methods for determining your level of self-esteem include upward social comparison and compensatory self-enhancement. Social comparison includes comparing your personal attitude and performance with someone who you perceive as doing significantly better than yourself. Compensatory self-enhancement requires you to accept your failures, however, you understand and acknowledge that you are good at other things. Reflecting on my own self-esteem, I would evaluate myself as moderate. I do not believe I possess a self-serving bias, as I do not tend to exaggerate any of my positive characteristics. With that being said, I find myself utilizing the social comparison method more often than the compensatory self-enhancement method, as our individualistic society directs us to be continuously bettering ourselves.

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Individualist vs Collectivist Society

I feel as though Canadian society is highly individualistic as we are less dependent on the actions of others. Independence can be thought as having a job to support yourself financially, however, a sense of independence encourages a sense of control over one’s life by promoting self-esteem, confidence, and motivating yourself to accomplish certain tasks. Conversely, individuals in a collectivistic society are concerned with the goals of their groups. People are therefore more willing to adjust their behaviours and choices to conform with the actions of groups towards a certain goal. Cultural influences such as family sometimes emulate a collectivist mindset where familial values and goals are upheld and worked towards. Being raised in Canada, I recognize the importance of personal autonomy in contrast to the influences and desires of others. I also acknowledge the significance and privilege of not relying on others as much throughout my life as I have grown up in an individualistic society. Personally, I feel as though my family has a balanced individualistic and collectivist approach to life as they are not overbearing or restricting my decisions while still being supportive and ensuring I am constantly checking in.

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Choice

Choice is an integral psychological action that is a part of the North American conscious. Choice gives an illusion of control, independence, and freedom which can shape an individual’s overall well-being. Predominantly in the United States, the availability of choice creates a sense of independence which accompanies control and responsibility. The majority of choices we make throughout the day are minor and do not evoke profound reflection, such as choosing what to eat in the morning or what clothes to wear. I believe these choices also display a sense of privilege as not all countries or societies have the choice to these things that we, in North America, take for granted. The ability to make choices freely is a right in many cultures worldwide. However, the extent to which people value and exercise choice is influenced by cultural context. Choices with regard to marriage, where to live, and the ability to have kids are not seen as a right in some cultures. Moreover, religious considerations and familial context/structure also impacts and restricts these choices for an individual. Overall, the choices we make structure our lives to match our desires and needs and our ability to make these choices cannot be taken for granted.

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Who Am I?

The “Who am I?” exercise done in the last module is an established measure of the self-concept called the “Twenty-Statements Test”. This test consists of stating 20 facts that describe who you are and how you perceive yourself within society. “Who am I?” is a simple question, and yet the test yields significant expressive responses that require us to reflect on a deeper level. This question is ultimately relevant in addressing the self-concept of individual identity and influences our interaction and perception of society. The test is not applicable to just one society, however, as it is generalizable, and demonstrates how members across cultures perceive themselves regarding both abstract psychological attributes and concrete roles and relationships. The words and categories used to describe yourself provide insight into the cultural influences of your cultural background with a quantitative analysis. After completing this exercise, it required me to reflect on an individual level and as an individual within society. I initially thought that the test would be simple and quick, however, I found myself resisting and questioning myself thinking in such a self-centered manner. I did not follow the initial studies strict time limit for the answers; however, I eventually became more comfortable and acknowledged that this test was only for my personal wellbeing. The variety of sub-categories my responses could fit into was shocking, and I found myself responding with “pure qualified traits” the most. This test made me reflect on myself and my cultural upbringing as I compared it to that noted in the US and Japan.

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Is the mind independent from culture?

Much of psychology may assume that the mind operates under a set of natural, universal laws that are independent of content or context. This assumption infers that people are the same everywhere we go – however, this might not be the case. On the one hand, some psychologists believe that the mind operates similarly to a computer that operates without taking content or the context into consideration. On the other hand, cultural psychologists disagree with this statement, and instead, they believe thought is influenced by the specific ways cultural knowledge shapes their understanding of those instincts and behaviours. This assumption is supported by the neural plasticity of our brains – the ability of the brain to change and adapt because of varying experiences. Humans are increasingly susceptible to brain plasticity during childhood as the brain continues to develop. As we experience different events and experiences in our lifetime, they shape how the brain responds to simple tasks. These events and experiences are ultimately influenced by our culture as our beliefs, values, institutions, and practices have a great impact on our lives. Being a part of a particular culture can therefore influence a person’s thoughts, actions, and feelings and furthermore, the way we interpret and perceive life. Despite all humans being born with similar brain structures and functions, the mind is independent of culture.

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You are a product of your own culture

The common phrase: “You are a product of your own culture” implies that the culture you're brought up in shapes you into the individual you are today. This suggests North American culture or Western society is viewed as “normal” when compared to other countries and cultures across the globe when in fact “normal” is highly subjective. Being a part of a culture signifies specific personal characteristics, knowledge, and experiences. Cultural elements such as language, religion, beliefs, customs, social habits, arts, music, and cuisine make up one’s cultural identity. If for example you are raised in a religious family, you will practice prayer, attend church often, and adhere to religious stipulations on marriage or familial role. In turn, this lifestyle becomes your “norm” and as you grow, you will observe and carry these same traditions along with your own family, and the process will repeat itself. It is these experiences that shape, but not necessarily determine, our psychological processes. Our perceptions of certain values and attention to cultural norms can nevertheless be shaped by the cultures we live in. These perceptions can also lead to prejudices of other cultures, labeling them as “foreign” or “alien” as they differ from our own, often sheltered views of the world.

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Family History and Culture

What aspects of your family’s past history may still be having an impact on shaping your thoughts and feelings (e.g., immigrant or migration history, traditions, ethnic group membership, etc.)?

Over the past few years, I have found myself becoming more invested in my family’s history. This is not to say I have not been interested in the past, however, as I have had the opportunity and privilege to travel, my interest and planning trips based on familial ties has increased. My family’s history includes predominantly Scottish roots on my father’s side and Irish and English on my mother’s side. I have been exposed to some Scottish culture growing up in Antigonish as it is home to the oldest highland games outside of Scotland, as well as learning Gaelic when my papa lived with us. It is also worth noting that my father’s lineage is traced back to a specific isle of Scotland, which has sparked my interest in researching more into my family’s history and exploring old traditions of the area. With that being said, I feel as though it is my uncle who has had the biggest impact on my thoughts and feelings towards family and culture. Immigrating from El Salvador, he fled a war-torn country to find refuge in Canada. His stories and experiences are something I will never be able to fully understand, however, it is truly inspirational what he has been able to accomplish, and it makes me forever grateful to have grown up in Canada. He also remains very in touch with his Mayan culture, cooking traditional meals and supporting a large Mayan Sun God tattoo. Being exposed to different cultures within my family has ultimately allowed me to reflect on my own beliefs and way of life.

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COVID-19 and Culture

Consider contemporary news events that call for a consideration of how culture plays a role in the event, reflect on these events using your knowledge of culture and human psychology

Throughout this global pandemic, countries around the world have had drastically different approaches in handling the spread of COVID-19. Before vaccines were readily available in developed countries, there was a sort of global cooperation to accelerate the efficacy of the vaccines, which required human trials at the latter stages of development. There has been some reporting that in the USA, these large-scale efficacy trials occurred only on white people. This is comparable to the acronym ‘WEIRD’ used to describe the psychological database as most psychology studies are being done on Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic societies (WEIRD societies). It appears COVID-19 vaccination trials have mirrored psychologists’ narrow and unrepresentative samples which weaken their ability to respond to questions about how well findings generalize from a particular study to other populations. It is also these countries that are producing and controlling vaccine distribution, creating a larger power imbalance between developed and developing countries. While this imbalance is forever present, the pandemic has exacerbated and highlighted how globalization is affecting a lot more in life than just trade and commerce. Distribution of vaccines, medications, and PPE is essential to combat the spread and treatment of COVID-19, however, cultural barriers such as race, gender, and religion restrict access for individuals to receive them even in countries who are fortunate to receive them.