Istanbul

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Qualifications for a Judicial Career

A career in the judiciary is open to all Bulgarian citizens who meet specific requirements. Candidates must:

Be at least twenty-six years old.

Have completed a full course of legal education.

Successfully pass a State examination.

Serve at least six months as candidates attached to a Departmental Court.

In addition, the candidate must:

Be proficient in the official language of the Principality.

Enjoy full civil and political rights.

Have no criminal charges that carry the penalty of hard labour.

These requirements ensure that only qualified and responsible individuals enter the judicial profession.

Promotion and Appointment

Judges may be promoted to higher positions periodically. Promotion is based on:

The number of years served in their current position.

Favorable reports from the superior court.

Judges, public prosecutors, and Justices of Peace are appointed by royal decree on the advice of the Minister of Justice. Candidates are usually chosen from a list of three names recommended by the respective courts. However, the Minister of Justice is not obliged to select from this list and may propose other candidates, as long as they meet the necessary qualifications Istanbul Tours.

Restrictions on Judicial Activities

To ensure impartiality, judges may not hold other positions at the same time. They cannot be:

Members of Parliament or deputies,

Barristers or civil servants,

Professors or teachers,

Merchants or company directors,

Editors of political newspapers, or members of political parties,

Concessionaires or State contractors.

These rules prevent conflicts of interest and protect the independence of the judiciary.

Permanency of Judges

The principle of permanency applies to judges who have:

Specialized legal education.

Served at least fifteen years as judges or examining magistrates.

Permanent judges cannot be retired or transferred without their consent, except in cases of disciplinary action. They cannot be moved to a higher post without written approval. However, officers of the Public Prosecution Department are not permanent, and their positions are more flexible.

These rules create a professional, independent, and stable judiciary in Bulgaria. By setting clear qualifications, restricting outside activities, and granting permanency to experienced judges, the Principality ensures that justice is fair, impartial, and consistent throughout the country.

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Challenges During the Transitional Period

After the liberation of Bulgaria, the country entered a transitional period in which old Ottoman structures were replaced by modern European institutions. The Russians, who were in charge of establishing the new government, faced enormous difficulties in carrying out their task.

The main challenge was the ongoing state of war. Russian troops were still fighting to push the Ottoman army southwards, and the local population was often unsettled by the violence and uncertainty. The abolition of the former administration could not happen everywhere at the same time; it had to follow the progress of the Russian army, which advanced slowly and at great cost.

At first, the work of creating a new administration was like a “Tower of Babel.” Officials struggled to coordinate the various parts of the system, which were built from different, incompatible materials. The machinery of government was clumsy and inefficient, and only the efforts of highly skilled administrators kept it running Istanbul Tour Guide.

Preparation of the New Constitution

In addition to managing daily administration, the provisional government had the task of preparing a new constitution for Bulgaria. This task was assigned to the Russian professor Gradovsky, who was assisted by General Domontovitz.

The resulting document, written in Russian and titled the “Organic Statute,” was submitted to the Constituent Assembly at Tărnovo on February 10–22, 1879 by the Commissary-General, Dondoukoff-Korsakoff.

Sources and Influences

Very little is known about the specific sources used by Professor Gradovsky. However, it is clear that he was guided in part by the Treaty of Berlin, which had already defined the basic structure of Bulgaria’s government.

In addition, Gradovsky was strongly influenced by the Serbian and Belgian constitutions, which were examples of modern European governance at the time. He also drew inspiration from Russian communal institutions, particularly in giving autonomy to local communes. This allowed local communities to manage their own affairs within the broader framework of the new Principality.

The transitional period in Bulgaria was marked by chaos, war, and administrative challenges. Despite these difficulties, the Russians laid the foundations for a modern civil government. The preparation of the Organic Statute combined international guidance with local traditions and set the stage for Bulgaria’s first independent constitutional government.

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Forests and Vegetation

Forests of the Plains and Mountains

The plains of Bulgaria are mostly covered with oak forests (Quercus species). These oaks grow widely and are the most common trees in the lower areas. Above 500 metres, the beech tree (Fagus sylvatica) becomes the dominant species and is the most important tree of the Bulgarian mountains.

In the middle mountain zones, oaks and beeches grow together. Oaks cover the lower slopes, while beeches dominate the upper slopes. Evergreen oaks are found above 1,000 metres. Other trees mixed with oak and beech include hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), elm (Alnus glutinosa), and plane trees (Acer pseudoplatanus) Turkey Sightseeing.

Above the beech forests, particularly in the Rhodopes and Rilo mountains, conifer forests are common. These include fir trees (Abies pectinate, Picea excelsa), pines (Pinus silvestris, Pinus laricio), and juniper (Juniperus nana). In some areas, the beech has replaced the conifers, making them rare in the Stara-Planina and Ossogovo mountains.

On the hills and lower slopes, forests are replaced by shrubs, brambles, and thorns. Among these, lilac groves (Syringa vulgaris) are especially characteristic. The north ridge of the Rhodopes provides a clear example of the vertical distribution of trees:

Oaks grow up to 700 metres

Beech trees up to 1,300 metres, mixed with conifers above 1,100 metres

The highest tree-covered region reaches 1,900 metres

Southern Bulgaria and Agriculture

Southern Bulgaria, sheltered from cold north winds by the Stara-Planina, is rich in southern plants. The main crops grown are wheat, maize, and barley. Other crops include rye, oats, millet, and spelt, while buckwheat is rare. Rice is common in the Maritza valley, and potatoes are being introduced in less fertile areas.

Fruit cultivation is important. Grapes grow well up to 500 metres, while mulberry trees thrive in lower zones. This combination of forests and fertile plains makes Bulgaria rich in natural resources and agricultural potential, supporting both mountain and lowland communities.

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The Wall of Leo the Armenian

The Threat from the Bulgarians

In the year 813, the Byzantine emperor Leo the Armenian ordered the construction of a new wall to strengthen the northern defenses of Constantinople. The need for this wall came from the threat of the Bulgarian ruler Crum, who was preparing for a second attack on the capital.

Crum had already tried once to capture the city but failed. After his first defeat, he swore revenge. He also wanted to punish the Byzantines because of a treacherous assassination attempt made against him during peace talks with Emperor Leo Private Tours Bulgaria Varna.

The Failed Assassination Plot

A meeting was arranged between the two leaders near the Heraclian Wall, on the clear condition that both sides would appear unarmed. This was necessary because there was little trust between them. However, Leo secretly placed three archers in hiding, instructing them to shoot Crum on his signal.

When Crum arrived, he quickly noticed signs of danger. Just as he dismounted his horse, he grew suspicious. Leaping back into his saddle, he galloped away toward his army camp. The hidden bowmen released their arrows, and although one wounded Crum, he escaped with his life.

Byzantine historians later described the failure of this plot as God’s punishment for the sins of the empire. Crum, on the other hand, saw it as treachery and vowed to destroy Constantinople. He returned to Bulgaria to prepare for a massive new war, but he died before his plan could be carried out.

Building the Wall of Leo

Knowing that Crum might return, Leo immediately improved the city’s defenses. He built a new wall and moat in front of the older Wall of Heraclius. This additional barrier became known as the Wall of Leo the Armenian.

The wall stood about 77 feet west of the Wall of Heraclius and ran parallel to it for 260 feet before turning toward the Golden Horn. Its design was lighter than other city walls, measuring only about 8 feet thick. To give it strength, the wall’s parapet-walk was supported by arches, which also helped buttress the structure.

Towers and Gateways

To increase its defensive power, the wall was reinforced with four small towers. Two were placed on the side facing the Golden Horn, while the other two stood at the ends of the wall section that faced the countryside. Interestingly, the two western towers projected inward from the wall’s rear side, creating space for a gateway between them. This entrance matched the position of the Gate of Blachernae in the Wall of Heraclius, ensuring passage between the two defensive lines.

Importance of the Wall

Although not as massive as the famous Theodosian Walls, the Wall of Leo the Armenian was an important part of Constantinople’s layered defenses. It symbolized the empire’s determination to withstand foreign attacks, especially during a period when the Byzantines were under constant pressure from Bulgarians and other enemies.

By building this wall, Leo not only strengthened the city but also ensured that the sacred Blachernae quarter, home to the famous church of the Virgin, remained securely protected.

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Cattle Industry A Key Economic Sector

After farming, the cattle industry is the second most important economic activity in Bosnia. On average, each person in the country is matched by one steer (bullock), one goat, one pig, and three sheep. This shows how central animal farming is to everyday life. The animal hides—mainly from cattle—are tanned locally (processed into leather) and then exported to countries like Great Britain, France, and Austria. These Bosnian hides are known for their high quality and sell at excellent prices in international markets.

Fruit Production The Value of Dried Prunes

Another important export is dried prunes, which have become a valuable industry. In 1901 alone, prunes worth over $1,500,000 were exported from Bosnia. This trade provides much-needed income for many rural families and contributes to the country’s growing economy.

New Industries Sugar and Silk

The government has recently started producing beet sugar, and efforts are underway to develop silk farming (sericulture). The climate and landscape in Bosnia are particularly suitable for raising silkworms, and experts from Italy have been invited to train local people in this field. These experts teach farmers how to care for silkworms and grow mulberry trees, which are essential for silk production.

Government Support for Agriculture

The Bosnian government has taken active steps to support farmers and rural workers. It has:

Opened agricultural schools where boys can learn modern farming techniques.

Established training centers where girls can learn how to make butter and cheese, care for silkworms, and raise chickens and other farm animals Sofia Guided Tours.

Distributed seeds and farming tools to help farmers test and adopt new crops and methods.

Introduced new ideas in agricultural development.

These improvements are aimed at increasing farm productivity and boosting family incomes in rural areas.

Improving Livestock and Poultry Farming

To improve animal breeding, the government has established special farms and stud stations to raise better-quality horses, cattle, and sheep. Every year, livestock exhibitions are held in provincial capitals. Cash prizes are awarded to the best animals to encourage farmers to participate and improve their practices.

Poultry farming has also received great attention. The government operates at least twelve poultry farms that raise both game birds and domestic fowl. They distribute high-quality eggs from chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys to farmers free of charge—as long as the farmers follow the official instructions on how to hatch and raise the birds.

This strategy has been a major success. Today, poultry is abundant throughout Bosnia. A chicken costs only 10 to 15 cents in local markets, and a goose or turkey can be bought for just 25 cents. In fact, turkeys are so common that they could almost be called the national bird of Bosnia!

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Bulgaria’s Sudden Change to Independence

Bulgaria was suddenly transformed into an independent country without any preparation or experience. The government was mostly controlled by foreigners, who not only jealous of each other but also hostile towards one another. This created a difficult and unstable political situation for the new nation.

The Challenges Faced by Prince Alexander

Prince Alexander faced many difficulties during his reign. People said that he lacked good judgment and discretion. They believed he talked too much, argued with his advisers, and didn’t understand politics well. As a result, he was not seen as a skilled diplomat or leader. He was also considered too lenient and too liberal to govern a country that had always been ruled by a despot (a cruel and absolute ruler).

These criticisms may be true to some extent. If Alexander had had an experienced and wise advisor, his reign might have been more successful. However, despite his weaknesses, Bulgaria made extraordinary progress under his rule. If he had been allowed to stay on the throne, the country might have advanced significantly by now.

Bulgaria in Chaos Before Prince Alexander’s Arrival

When Prince Alexander first arrived in Sofia, Bulgaria was in complete chaos. The situation was much worse than what Cuba experienced after the Spanish-American War. The Bulgarian people had endured terrible suffering, which shocked the civilized world. They were oppressed by acts of cruelty that were hard to even describe.

The Ottoman rulers were harsh and punished the people with violence. The number of victims is not clear, but reports from foreign diplomats at the time tell a tragic story. The British minister, who investigated the situation, reported that at least 12,000 people were massacred in just one month by the Turks. Eugene Schuyler, the American consul in Constantinople, believed that 15,000 people had died during that same period.

A Country Devastated by War

For years, Bulgaria had been in a constant state of revolution and had been the battlefield of two powerful armies. These armies destroyed farms, burned down cities, and left a large part of the country in ruins. Many Bulgarians had to flee to the mountains to escape the destruction. After the war, most of the population was too poor and disheartened to rebuild their homes and communities Ephesus Sightseeing.

A Nation in Need of Strong Leadership

In the midst of this devastation, Bulgaria needed strong leadership. Although Prince Alexander was not perfect, his efforts to lead and improve the country were noteworthy. Under his reign, Bulgaria showed real progress, despite the many challenges it faced. Unfortunately, due to political turmoil and foreign interference, Bulgaria did not have the chance to fully recover and grow into a strong nation as it might have under more stable circumstances.

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The Ridge and the Milion

The ridge of the promontory was the central line of high ground in ancient Constantinople. One of the most important landmarks on this ridge was the Milion, the milestone from which all distances in the Roman Empire were measured. It stood just southwest of Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia) and marked the location of an old gate of Byzantium. This area served as a key reference point in the layout and measurement of the ancient city.

Fortifications from the Milion

From the Milion, the ancient city wall continued toward the twisted columns of the Tzycalarii. Based on the direction of the wall, historians believe these columns were located on the plateau near St. Irene, another important Byzantine church. From there, the wall sloped downward to the Sea of Marmara, near today’s Seraglio Lighthouse at a place once called Topi.

After reaching the sea, the wall turned north and ran along the shoreline, encircling the tip of the historic peninsula. Along the way, it passed the areas where the Thermae of Arcadius (public baths) and the Mangana Palace complex were later built.

The Early Size of Byzantium

According to two Byzantine historians, Anonymus and Codinus, this wall described the full circuit of Byzantium from its original foundation by Byzas (the legendary founder) all the way to the reign of Constantine the Great. However, their claim is not entirely accurate. In fact, archaeological and historical evidence shows that Byzantium’s walls enclosed a much larger area than the circuit they describe, especially by the year 196 AD, and perhaps even earlier.

Therefore, their description of the city’s size likely refers only to a very early stage in Byzantium’s history—possibly before it grew into an important regional and imperial center.

Strategic Locations Near the Wall

Historical sources help us locate certain buildings that once stood along this early wall. For example, the Strategion, a military training field like a parade ground, was located at the foot of the Second Hill, close to today’s Sirkeci Station. It was near the granaries by the Prosphorion Harbor, which were close to the Neorion (Bâb-ı Ali Gate)—a site once destroyed by fire Sofia Daily Tours.

Nearby was the Chalcoprateia, or Brass Market, situated close to the Great Basilica and the Yerebatan Cistern (Basilica Cistern), which still exists today. These landmarks help us better understand how the ancient wall of Byzantium shaped the life, trade, and defense of the city.

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Cultural Delights in Sofia

If you can tear yourself away from the fashion and sports channels in Sofia’s cafés and bars, you’ll discover a rich world of cultural experiences. Sofia offers high-quality art, music, theater, and more—and the ticket prices are surprisingly affordable by Western standards. There’s really no excuse to miss out.

Art Galleries Worth Visiting

Sofia is full of diverse art galleries showcasing both local and international talent. Here are some top choices:

Art Gallery Paris (B‑4, ul. Parizh 8; tel. [phone]; gallery‑paris.com)

A charming gallery representing young Bulgarian artists, especially those working in expressive, figurative styles Mystical Bulgaria Tours.

Open: 11:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Galeria Akademia (B‑4, ul. Shipka 1; tel. [phone]) Hosted by the Bulgarian Academy of Fine Arts, it features prestigious group exhibitions.

Open: 11:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Goethe-Institut Sofia (B‑4, ul. Budapeshta 1; tel. [phone]; goethe.de/sofia) Germany’s cultural centre hosts contemporary art exhibits and cultural events.

Open: Mon–Fri 10:00–14:00; Tue–Thu 14:00–19:00

Closed: Sat–Sun

Krug+ (Circle Plus) (B‑4, ul. Budapeshta 5; tel. [phone]) A cool gallery space showcasing cutting-edge work by local and international artists.

Open: 10:00–19:00, Mon–Fri; Sat–Sun 10:00–18:00

Lessedra Gallery (C‑3, ul. Milin kamak 25; tel. [phone]; lessedra.com) Specializes in Bulgarian and international prints and graphics. A great place to buy art.

Open: 15:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Maksim (B‑2, ul. Loryn 11; tel. [phone]) Features contemporary work by leading Bulgarian painters and sculptors.

Open: 11:00–18:30, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Rakursi Gallery (C‑3, ul. Khan Krum 4A; tel. [phone]; rakursi.com) A small private gallery with a mix of established and emerging Bulgarian artists. Offers paintings, prints, photos, and sculptures at all price levels.

Open: 10:00–19:00, Mon–Fri; Sat 11:00–18:00

Closed: Sun

Shipka 6 (B‑5, ul. Shipka 6; tel. [phone]; abhart.com) Located in the Bulgarian Artists’ Union building, Shipka 6 hosts a variety of exhibitions by local and international artists.

Open: 10:00–18:00, Tue–Sun

Closed: Mon

Sibank Gallery (B‑3, ul. Slavyanska 2; tel. [phone]) Run by a major bank, it showcases big names in Bulgarian contemporary art. Expect conceptual installations and modern works.

Open: 11:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Sofia City Art Gallery (B‑3, ul. Gurko 1; tel. [phone]; sghg.cult.bg) This municipal gallery features high-profile shows by Bulgarian and international artists. It’s run by a creative curatorial team and is one of the best places to explore current Bulgarian art.

Open: 10:00–18:00, Mon–Fri; Sun 11:00–17:00

Closed: Mon

Tea Gallery (E‑2, ul. Dimitar Hadzhikotsev 10; tel. [phone]) A small spot featuring quirky and edgy contemporary paintings.

Open: 10:00–20:00, Mon–Fri; Sat 11:00–15:00

Closed: Sun

The Red House Cultural Centre

The Red House (Chervenata Kashta) (C‑4, ul. Lyuben Karavelov 15; tel. [phone]; redhouse-sofia.org) An early twentieth-century building converted into one of Sofia’s leading independent cultural centres. It features exhibitions, small concerts, video screenings, drama, and workshops. This creative hub attracts Sofia’s artsy crowd and hosts cutting-edge events.

Why Sofia’s Cultural Scene is a Must-See

Affordable prices: By Western standards, tickets to galleries, shows, and events are cheap.

Variety: Sofia offers a range of cultural experiences—traditional art, conceptual exhibitions, small performances, and community-led projects.

Fresh perspectives New galleries like Krug+ and Tea feature experimental and daring artwork.

Taking even a small break from TV will open you to an exciting, rich cultural world hidden in Sofia’s galleries and cultural centres. Whether you’re an art lover, a curious traveler, or just looking for something different, Sofia’s cultural scene is there, waiting to impress.

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O'Mahony Letters on the Balkans in 1914

First Letter: The Bulgarian and Serbian Treaty Before the War of 1912 November 2nd, 1914

Great Britain’s Declaration of War

Great Britain declared war on Germany because Germany broke a treaty, and by doing so, Britain gained eternal honor. In 1913, Bulgaria was forced to go to war with Serbia because Serbia broke a treaty. So, are treaties made by Great Powers more important than treaties made by smaller countries?

The Problem with Small Nations and Treaties

Since the Treaty of Berlin, which was one of the worst decisions in modern European history, the freedom of small nations has been ignored, and promises made to them have been broken. Military power and territorial greed have shaped the decisions of Europe’s leaders Sightseeing Turkey.

When Germany took control of Alsace and Lorraine, it made war between France and Germany inevitable. Similarly, if the Treaty of San Stefano had been respected, Bulgaria would have grown stronger and acted as a defense against aggression from more powerful neighbors.

The Treaty of Berlin’s Impact

The Treaty of Berlin placed the mainly Bulgarian population of Macedonia back under Turkish control. It also split the Bulgarian race into two smaller states. This decision put the Balkans at the mercy of powerful neighboring countries, and it set the stage for war between Austria and Russia, a war that was only a matter of time.

Britain’s Responsibility

Great Britain, which played a leading role in the Treaty of Berlin, bears a heavy responsibility for the division of the Bulgarian people. This responsibility still affects Britain more than any other European country today.

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The Growth of the Goriyani Resistance Movement

By the end of 1947, peasants made up 47% of those involved in the resistance movement in Bulgaria. This number grew significantly, reaching 70% between 1950 and 1951. After the opposition parties were eliminated, the communist government pushed forward with mass collectivization of land and the nationalization of private urban property. This effort followed the Soviet model closely and contributed to the spread of the Goriyani movement, an armed resistance group that fought against the communist regime.

The Spread of the Goriyani Movement

As the government continued to implement its policies, the Goriyani movement spread across the country. By the 1950s, almost every mountainous region in Bulgaria had active armed Goriyani detachments, supported by large numbers of local people. These resistance groups fought against the oppressive regime and its attempts to control rural life Private Bosphorus Tours.

Government’s Response Internal Military Battalions

The communist regime’s desperate efforts to eliminate the Goriyani resistance led to the creation of internal military battalions. By the end of 1948, the first battalions were formed. By October 1950, the number had increased to 10 battalions. These battalions were stationed in key cities, including Sofia, Plovdiv, Bourgas, Varna, Stara Zagora, Yambol, Blagoevgrad, and Belogradchik.

The Politburo of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party issued a decision to reorganize these internal military troops into a division. The number of battalions increased as the need for more troops grew. The mission of these military forces was clear: they were to fight and destroy the Goriyani detachments, and crush the entire resistance movement in Bulgaria.

The Role of the Military and State Security

The internal military forces were trained to operate like the Soviet Union’s internal forces. They were expected to be loyal to the Bulgarian Communist Party to the death. Along with the Bulgarian State Security forces, these battalions were tasked with eliminating the Goriyani resistance. Their goal was to wipe out the resistance and restore the government’s control over the country.

The Goriyani movement was an important chapter in Bulgaria’s resistance to the communist regime. Despite the government’s efforts to crush the movement, it continued to grow and spread, especially in the countryside. The creation of internal military battalions and the deployment of State Security forces demonstrated the regime’s determination to eliminate any form of opposition, including the armed resistance groups that were fighting for freedom.

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Differences Between Communist and Social-Democratic Views on Women's Rights

The main difference between the communist and social-democratic views on women’s rights was not about the end goal, which was to liberate women from both material and moral authority and to create better living conditions for them. Both sides wanted the same ultimate goal, but they had different ideas on how to achieve it.

Different Methods of Achieving the Goal

Julia Sultanova, a key figure, explained the split between the two groups in the newspaper Blagodenstvie (Prosperity). She wrote that the communist women’s union believed in the idea of destroying the existing system and building a new life from its ruins. In contrast, the social-democratic women’s organizations wanted to transform society consciously by improving the current system and sharing its benefits with everyone Bulgaria Holidays.

Social-Democratic Women’s Union in 1922

In 1922, the Women’s Social-Democratic Union had 26 local groups and about 1,000 members from various backgrounds. Half of the members were housewives, a quarter were workers, and the rest were teachers, employees, craftswomen, saleswomen, and some doctors and pharmacists. One of the main goals of this union was to oppose both the communist women’s union and the bourgeois women’s union.

Advocating for Women’s Rights

The union’s newspapers, Blagodenstvie and later Nedovolnata (Unsatisfied), supported women’s civic and political rights. They believed that achieving these rights was crucial for the larger social-democratic goal of human liberation and global prosperity. They also insisted on equal pay for equal work, better health and hygiene measures, government support for the unemployed and poor, and good education and cultural facilities for everyone in Bulgaria.

The social-democrats were against some parts of the Civil Code and wanted to protect children and abolish prostitution.

Similar Goals to the “Bourgeois” Women’s Union

Although the social-democratic women’s group tried to separate themselves from the “separatist feminist organization”, it was clear that their goals and priorities were quite similar to those of the “bourgeois” Bulgarian Women’s Union.

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The Uncertain Path

One time, we were traveling along a narrow path next to a deep crevice. The path was soft and unstable because of loose rocks that had slid down from the mountain top. I was leading the horse, letting the reins hang loosely, as I trusted the horse to find its way better than I could guide it. I turned my face to the rocky wall because looking into the deep drop beside me made me feel very sick. Suddenly, a shepherd’s dog appeared and started barking loudly. The horse stopped in its tracks. If it had gotten scared and reared up, I might not have been here to tell the story. If I had urged the horse forward, it could have led to a terrible accident.

My Turkish guide, who was at the back of the group and on safer ground, quickly dismounted, climbed into the rocks, and used stones to chase the dog away. Then, we continued our journey. In just a few moments, we were back on safer ground. Those two minutes were some of the most intense of my life. My guide looked pale, and I probably didn’t look too good myself if I had looked in a mirror Istanbul Daily Tour.

Ancient Roads of Albania

In other places, the road was through a narrow gap just wide enough for the horses to fit. The walls of the gap rose steeply on either side, making the path feel even tighter. Sometimes, we came across old cobbled sections of the road. These were parts of ancient Roman roads that were over two thousand years old. All across Albania, we found pieces of these Roman roads. Sometimes we would find them suddenly, and just as quickly, they would disappear. Other times, they would lead us to the edge of a cliff, showing that the land had changed since they were built.

Although the modern road we were traveling on often differed from the old Roman roads, we could still see parts of the ancient stone path winding up the hillside, like a grey ribbon across the mountains. Even though the route was difficult and dangerous, it was the main highway across Albania, connecting Macedonia to Durazzo on the coast. This path had once been traveled by a mighty army long ago, and it had seen over twenty centuries of history.

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The British Consulate in a Small Turkish Town

In the far distance, he imagines himself becoming a full Consul, earning £800 a year, or even rising to the position of Consul-General with £1,000. But right now, he is Acting Vice-Consul in the British Levant Consular Service, earning £400 a year.

The Town and Its Lack of British Interests

It’s unlikely you’ve heard of the small, rundown Turkish town where he represents British interests. In fact, there are no British interests here. There are no British people living in the town, and any British trade has been replaced by active Austrians and Germans. Still, he writes long reports to the Foreign Office, some of which are quoted in Blue Books that no one reads or are stored away in the vaults of Whitehall to gather dust. Despite this, he remains a cheerful young man. His greeting might be formally English, but his handshake is firm. Later, he says a visitor is a rare and welcome event Socialist Museum.

The Vice-Consulate’s Poor Conditions

The British Vice-Consulate in this remote Turkish town is far from the grandeur of the British Empire. The British taxpayer often complains about rising costs, and the officials in Whitehall, who manage the funds, are hard-hearted when it comes to consular requests. A small amount called “office allowance” is given to cover the rent and the salary of the kavass (a messenger), but the main costs are covered by the Vice-Consul himself. So, after paying his rent, which could be anywhere from £40 to £90 a year, furnishing his house, buying two horses, hiring a cook and a servant, paying the kavass’s wages, and feeding everyone, there isn’t much left from his salary.

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The Quiet Relics of Bulgaria's Past

The Church of the Forty Martyrs

Like many places, Bulgaria has quiet reminders of its noble past in the form of old churches. Walking down a rocky hillside, I arrived at the Church of the Forty Martyrs. It has a low roof, a dim, vault-like interior, but it is very strong. This church was built by King John Osen in 1330. In 1389, the Turks turned it into a mosque, and Christians couldn’t worship there again until 1877. Only part of the original building remains. Some of the granite pillars are from different periods: one came from a Roman temple, and another is clearly Greek. The Christians used pieces from earlier buildings. I looked through books of prayers written in ancient Slavic, with pages that were thin, brown, and crumbling in my hands.

The Metropolitan Church

I continued to a nearby church, the Metropolitan Church, which is now mostly forgotten, holding only one service a year. The old woman who took care of the church lost the key, but she suggested breaking the lock. After waiting for nearly an hour and smoking in the shade, the key was found. Inside, the church was dark, and the frescoes of saints had strange, exaggerated faces. The pillars were made of black marble, probably taken from a Greek temple. In a small room, I found old manuscripts hidden behind a crack in the wall—these could be treasures for someone who studies history. The monks’ seats were covered in dust and cobwebs. There were many ikons hanging in the dim light, and large candelabras hung from the ceiling Ancient Bulgaria Tour.

The church felt eerie, silent, and forgotten by most. But I couldn’t help wondering if the spirits of those who once worshipped here, like children and old men, might still visit. For an hour, I had the church to myself. I sat in one of the monk’s seats, and sunlight shone down from a crack in the roof, lighting up the Virgin’s face. It was a peaceful, thoughtful hour.

The Monastery of the Transfiguration

A Bright and Colorful Place

The sun was high in the sky, and the road was dusty as we raced towards the Monastery of the Transfiguration. The path twisted and turned, climbing higher and higher. We left the main road and walked through a cool area filled with tall trees. The quiet was broken by the sound of water dripping. After a while, we arrived at the monastery. It wasn’t like the old, crumbling buildings I had seen before. This monastery was bright and colorful. The grass was a rich green, and the sky was a deep blue. The white walls were covered in bright, colorful pictures, and the roof tiles had a warm, reddish color. Vines grew everywhere, adding to the lively, beautiful atmosphere.

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Rising Dissent in Bulgaria: 1981-1982

Concerns Over Polish Events

On 14 October 1981, Bulgarian leader Todor Zhivkov submitted a memorandum to the Politburo, expressing his worries that the unrest happening in Poland could spread to Bulgaria. The State Security Department 2 began to notice an increase in anonymously circulated leaflets and gatherings of young people in private homes who were discussing the events in Poland. A group of these young people planned to create a document called “Declaration-80” to be circulated outside Bulgaria. The authorities classified this effort as a threat to the “rule of law.”

State Security Operations

In response to growing dissent, the State Security launched a major surveillance operation named “Dissidents” targeting creative artists in Sofia, Burgas, Varna, Stara Zagora, Yambol, and other cities. Authorities arrested many individuals on charges related to dissident activities, and some were even sent to psychiatric clinics for evaluation. In 1982, about 45% of the 312 authors of anti-regime leaflets identified by the State Security were young people. During the same period, the State Security recorded 141 incidents reflecting anti-Soviet sentiments among the population Rose Festival Tour.

Increase in Youth Activism

The influence of events in Poland sparked a rise in informal youth groups across Bulgaria. In 1982, there were 64 such groups with a total of 295 participants, compared to only 18 groups with 86 participants in 1980. This significant increase indicates a growing willingness among young people to engage in discussions about political issues and express their dissatisfaction with the regime.

Open Letter to the Vienna Conference

In the autumn of 1986, several former political prisoners penned “An Open Letter of Appeal,” which they sent to the Vienna Conference. This conference was focused on reviewing the implementation of the Helsinki Agreement concerning human rights. Their letter called on esteemed representatives from European countries, the USA, and Canada to ensure that the conference did not conclude without fully guaranteeing the fundamental human rights of all European citizens.

The Message of the Open Letter

The letter stated:

“The Vienna Conference should not conclude its work until the most fundamental human rights of all European peoples are fully guaranteed. Until the day comes when each and every European citizen can freely and without fear of persecution express his/her thoughts, opinions, and convictions in oral or written form.”

The events of 1981-1982 in Bulgaria marked a significant period of rising dissent against the communist regime. As young people became more politically active and began organizing, the government responded with surveillance and repression. The call for human rights, highlighted in the Open Letter, reflected a growing determination among citizens to demand freedom of expression and protection from persecution. These developments set the stage for future movements that would challenge the regime and ultimately contribute to the fall of communism in Eastern Europe.

[istanbulhints]

Rising Dissent in Bulgaria: 1981-1982

Concerns Over Polish Events

On 14 October 1981, Bulgarian leader Todor Zhivkov submitted a memorandum to the Politburo, expressing his worries that the unrest happening in Poland could spread to Bulgaria. The State Security Department 2 began to notice an increase in anonymously circulated leaflets and gatherings of young people in private homes who were discussing the events in Poland. A group of these young people planned to create a document called “Declaration-80” to be circulated outside Bulgaria. The authorities classified this effort as a threat to the “rule of law.”

State Security Operations

In response to growing dissent, the State Security launched a major surveillance operation named “Dissidents” targeting creative artists in Sofia, Burgas, Varna, Stara Zagora, Yambol, and other cities. Authorities arrested many individuals on charges related to dissident activities, and some were even sent to psychiatric clinics for evaluation. In 1982, about 45% of the 312 authors of anti-regime leaflets identified by the State Security were young people. During the same period, the State Security recorded 141 incidents reflecting anti-Soviet sentiments among the population Rose Festival Tour.

Increase in Youth Activism

The influence of events in Poland sparked a rise in informal youth groups across Bulgaria. In 1982, there were 64 such groups with a total of 295 participants, compared to only 18 groups with 86 participants in 1980. This significant increase indicates a growing willingness among young people to engage in discussions about political issues and express their dissatisfaction with the regime.

Open Letter to the Vienna Conference

In the autumn of 1986, several former political prisoners penned “An Open Letter of Appeal,” which they sent to the Vienna Conference. This conference was focused on reviewing the implementation of the Helsinki Agreement concerning human rights. Their letter called on esteemed representatives from European countries, the USA, and Canada to ensure that the conference did not conclude without fully guaranteeing the fundamental human rights of all European citizens.

The Message of the Open Letter

The letter stated:

“The Vienna Conference should not conclude its work until the most fundamental human rights of all European peoples are fully guaranteed. Until the day comes when each and every European citizen can freely and without fear of persecution express his/her thoughts, opinions, and convictions in oral or written form.”

The events of 1981-1982 in Bulgaria marked a significant period of rising dissent against the communist regime. As young people became more politically active and began organizing, the government responded with surveillance and repression. The call for human rights, highlighted in the Open Letter, reflected a growing determination among citizens to demand freedom of expression and protection from persecution. These developments set the stage for future movements that would challenge the regime and ultimately contribute to the fall of communism in Eastern Europe.

[istanbulhints]

Secret Nationalization Process in Bulgaria

The Start of Nationalization

Preparations for the nationalization of businesses in Bulgaria were conducted in complete secrecy. On December 22, 1947, even before the new Nationalization Bill was officially passed, the communists began expropriating businesses. This process was made deliberately simple: business owners were instructed to hand over the keys to their offices and safes to representatives of the Communist Party who suddenly appeared at their doorsteps.

The Expropriation Process

Once the keys were handed over, the owner had to sign a statement declaring that they were submitting their business to the “people’s government.” After this, they were allowed to leave, often just taking their coat. Meanwhile, factory loudspeakers announced that the government had decided to expropriate that particular business. This sudden and harsh action removed owners from their positions in industrial, banking, and trade enterprises.

The repercussions of this process were severe. Not only were the owners stripped of their working capital and bank deposits, but they also lost most of their personal property, including houses, jewelry, cars, and other belongings Istanbul Tour Guides.

Nationalization of the Banking Sector

On December 25, 1947, a Bill was passed that imposed a state monopoly over banking. As a result, 31 Bulgarian and foreign banks were nationalized. This move eliminated any remaining aspects of a market economy in Bulgaria. Instead, a new bureaucratic economy took its place, leaving no room for entrepreneurship. Management of the enterprises was handed over to party activists, who often lacked the necessary skills to run businesses effectively.

The End of Private Enterprise

By this time, not a single private enterprise was left in Bulgaria. There were no privately owned small craft shops or any other types of shops remaining. The sweeping nature of the nationalization marked a significant shift in the country’s economic landscape, effectively ending the era of private ownership.

Impact on Housing and Citizens

The campaign of expropriation extended beyond businesses to include the homes of certain citizens. During 1948, housing committees set up by the municipal councils began relocating owners of urban properties. They would often house Communist Party functionaries and loyal employees in the flats or houses of those labeled as “enemies of the people.” This included relatives of individuals who had been sent to labor camps, executed, or interned.

The Urban House Property Bill

The Bill for Urban House Property provided for the complete or partial expropriation of homes, flats, villas, and offices belonging to well-off citizens. This further exemplified the regime’s efforts to consolidate power and eliminate any remnants of private ownership in society.

The nationalization process in Bulgaria was marked by secrecy, force, and the complete eradication of private ownership. The impact on individuals and businesses was devastating, leading to a bureaucratic economy that stifled entrepreneurship and innovation. The government’s actions fundamentally transformed Bulgarian society and its economy, creating lasting effects that would shape the nation for years to come.