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There are certain causes of death, or conditions that prevail during the decomposition process, that may cause the body to take on an unusual appearance or to deviate from the expected state of decomposition. These can include:
Drowning
Fire (charring)
Mummification
Carbon monoxide poisoning
DROWNING
Can be accidental, murder, or suicide.
Dumping a body in water may be a murderer’s attempt to dispose of it in the hope that it will remain undiscovered or to degrade any tell-tale DNA or trace evidence.
It is possible for the pathologist to ascertain if death has been caused by drowning or if the person was already dead before entering the water.
The presence of diatoms in the body indicates that death was caused by drowning.
Diatoms - a type of single-celled algae unique to the body of water they are found in; this may be saltwater or freshwater, and from a specific lake or estuary.
They are not present in tap water as it is filtered, and therefore will not be present in somebody who has drowned in a bath, although water present in the stomach and lungs of the deceased is still indicative of death by drowning.
Diatoms can only enter the body by being ingested through the lungs or stomach of a living person while the heart is still beating. Their presence will then be discovered in the blood, bone marrow and brain of the deceased.
When attending water deaths, a water sample will be taken so the diatoms present in the source can be compared to those identified in the body.
In this way, investigators can ascertain whether the victim was drowned in the same body of water in which it was discovered.
Bodies that have been immersed in water for any length of time are likely to be discovered in a macerated form.
This is when the skin wrinkles and loosens to such an extent that it starts to become detached.
The skin may also appear adipocerous: this is when a wax-like coating progressively covers the body when it is overexposed to wet conditions.
Adipocere - caused by the reaction of body fat to water; hydrolysis occurs, resulting in the coagulation of fat, which spreads across the surface of exposed areas of the body.
Vagal drowning occurs when the vagus nerves become unintentionally over-stimulated, resulting in a cardiac arrest.
The vagus nerves serve the lungs, heart, chest and abdomen.
Cardiac arrest can occur when the body is suddenly exposed to cold water, which causes vagal inhibition, particularly when cold water suddenly enters the larynx or ears, or strikes the abdomen in the event of the person falling into water.
This instantaneous reaction leaves a person incapacitated, and is potentially the cause of many deaths of people who are under the influence of drink or drugs and behave without due care and attention when close to canals and waterways.
Inhibition of the vagal nerve can also occur during asphyxiation.
FIRE
This process can be an opportunity for murderers to dispose of cumbersome corpses before they succumb to the unpleasantness of decomposition.
Pathologists will be able to ascertain if the victim was dead before the fire by examining the lungs and airways to detect the presence of soot.
Even if the body is severely blackened through charring, it can still provide pathologists with much needed clues.
If a body has been assaulted prior to the fire, it is possible for pathologists to detect signs of an assault by examining the skeletal remains.
Another indication that a person has been assaulted prior to the fire is the lack of what is called ‘pugilistic pose’ in the body.
This is taken from a boxing stance where the fighter stands with clenched fists and arms, and legs flexed in a particular defensive position.
During a fire, the intense heat causes the hands, elbows and knees to flex and stiffen, drawing the body into this recognized position.
If, however, the victim was assaulted before the fire, then damage to the joints will prevent the body adopting the pugilist position.
MUMMIFICATION
A body may not decompose depending on certain circumstances.
Example: Bodies kept in extremely cold conditions will not succumb to bacteria or insect activity.
The Lindow Man is one of many preserved bodies recovered from peat bogs across the United Kingdom: his remains were discovered by peat cutters working on Lindow Moss, Cheshire in 1984. Experts have concluded that he died a violent death between 2 BC and 119AD and his body has been preserved for the ensuing centuries due to the cool temperature, low oxygenation and high acidity of the peat bog.
Following death, some bodies may not succumb to the decomposition process because they become mummified.
In order for this state to occur, the body must be exposed to a stable temperature (preferably warm) with a steady air current, which allows the body to dry out.
The desert is an ideal environment to promote mummification, but the right combination of elements nearer to home has also produced the same effect.
Example: In Germany in 1994, police discovered the mummified remains of a lady who they believe had died of natural causes 6 months earlier. She was discovered in her lounge in front of the television, and neighbours only thought to raise the alarm after noticing that her letterbox was overflowing with post. The lady’s body was most likely mummified due to the constant temperature of her room over such a long period of time.
CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
The introduction of unleaded petrol and catalytic converters in cars has led to a decline in the typical suicide scenario of a desperate person sitting in their car with the engine running and a hosepipe threaded through the window.
Even so, carbon monoxide is still very much a killer due to faulty gas pipes and damaged heaters and fires.
The early symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning can be similar to flu, but increased exposure to the gas, as well as old age and failing health, can prove fatal to the victim. One of the noticeable, distinct features of a person who has died as a result of carbon monoxide poisoning is cherry reddening of the skin.
In normal circumstances in the first stage of death, there is a noticeable paling of the skin due to algor mortis, therefore this distinctive reddening is an obvious sign that death has not occurred due to natural causes.
The decomposition process occurs in several stages following death:
Pallor mortis
Algor mortis
Rigor mortis
Cadaveric spasm
Lividity
Putrefaction
Decomposition
Skeletonization
PALLOR MORTIS
The first stage of death.
Occurs once blood stops circulating in the body.
The cessation of an oxygenated blood flow to the capillaries beneath the skin causes the deceased to pale in appearance.
In non-Caucasians, the pallor may appear to develop an unusual hue; the skin will lose any natural lustre and appears more waxen.
Occurs quite quickly, within about 10 minutes after death.
ALGOR MORTIS
The cooling of the body after death.
The cooling process will be influenced by many factors, including the deceased’s clothing, or whether they are covered with bed linen such as blankets or duvets.
The body will typically cool to the ambient room temperature, but this alters if there is heating in the room or if there is a constant draught cooling the body.
RIGOR MORTIS
Can occur between 2 and 6 hours after death.
Factors including temperature can greatly affect this.
Caused by the muscles partially contracting, and the lack of aerobic respiration means that the muscles cannot relax from the contraction, leaving them tense, subsequently resulting in the stiffening we associate with rigor mortis.
This stage typically begins in the head, starting with the eyes, mouth, jaw and neck, and progresses right through the body.
The process is concluded approximately 12 hours after death (although, again, certain variables may occur) and lasts between 24 and 72 hours depending on circumstances.
Contrary to popular belief, rigor mortis is not a permanent state and is in fact reversed, with the muscles relaxing in the same order in which they initially stiffened.
The reversing process also takes approximately 12 hours, when the body returns to its un-contracted state.
It is possible to ‘break’ rigor mortis by manipulating and flexing the limbs. This is usually done by undertakers, pathologists or crime scene investigators who are attempting to examine or move a body – or by a murderer trying to hide their victim in the closet or the boot of a car.
CADAVERIC SPASM
A phenomenon that can be misinterpreted as rigor mortis.
The instantaneous stiffening of the body (most commonly the hands) following a traumatic death.
Unlike rigor mortis, the stiffening of the affected limb is permanent and is not reversed, causing the deceased to maintain the rigidity until such time as putrefaction causes breakdown of the particular muscle group.
Examples:
The deceased following an air crash were later discovered still clutching their seatbelts or arm rests in a final, desperate act of survival.
In a drowning case, the victim was discovered with grass from the riverbank still grasped in their hand.
Perhaps the most famous case of cadaveric spasm involves the rock band Nirvana’s lead singer, Kurt Cobain. Cobain reportedly committed suicide in April 1994. His body was discovered a few days after his death with a shotgun wound to the head, and tests revealed he had large traces of heroin in his system. He was reportedly discovered still clutching the gun in his left hand, due to cadaveric spasm. However, a great deal of controversy surrounds the veracity of this latter assumption, and indeed the cause of his death, with many people insisting and attempting to prove that he died as the result of foul play rather than suicide.
LIVIDITY
Also known as livor mortis, hypostasis, or suggillation.
Once blood can no longer circulate, it will gravitate towards the lowest point of the body.
Example: A supine body will display pinkish/purple patches of discoloration where the blood has settled in the back and along the thighs.
Occurs about 30 minutes after death, but will not necessarily be noticeable until at least 2 hours afterwards as the pooling process intensifies and becomes visible, finally peaking up to between 8 and 12 hours later.
Once it is complete, the lividity process cannot be reversed.
Therefore a body discovered lying on its side, but with staining evident in the back and shoulders, must have been moved at some point from what would have been a supine position at the time of death.
It is worth noting that if the body has had contact with the floor, a wall or other solid surface, lividity would not occur at the points of contact as the pressure would not allow the blood to seep through the capillaries and pool. The specific area of pressure will be the same colour as the rest of the body and a pattern of contact may well be evident.
PUTREFACTION
Derives from the Latin putrefacere, meaning ‘to make rotten’.
The body becomes rotten through the process known as autolysis, which is the liquefaction of bodily tissue and organs and the breakdown of proteins within the body due to the increased presence of bacteria.
The first visible sign is the discoloration of the skin in the area of the abdomen.
Bacteria released from the intestine cause the body to become bloated with a mixture of gases; over time these will leak out, and the smell will intensify to unbearable proportions.
Typically, this will attract flies that will lay eggs, which develop into maggots.
Bloating is most evident in the stomach area, genitals and face, which can become unrecognizable as the tongue and eyes are forced to protrude due to the pressure of the build-up of gases in the body.
At this stage, the body will also begin to lose hair.
The organs typically decompose in a particular order: starting with the stomach, followed by the intestines, heart, liver, brain, lungs, kidney, bladder and uterus/prostate.
Once all the gases have escaped the skin begins to turn black: this stage is called ‘black putrefaction’.
As with all the other stages of death so far, the rate of putrefaction depends on temperature and location. A body exposed to the air above ground will decompose more quickly than a body left in water or buried below ground.
During putrefaction, blistering of the skin and fermentation can also occur:
Fermentation - a type of mould that will grow on the surface of the body. This mould appears white, and is slimy or furry in texture. It also releases a very strong, unpleasant, cheesy smell.
As the putrefaction process comes to an end, fly and maggot activity will become less, which leads to the next stage.
DECOMPOSITION
The body is an organic substance comprising organisms that can be broken down by chemical decomposition.
If the body is outside, any remains that have not been scavenged or consumed by maggots will liquefy and seep into the surrounding soil.
Thus when the body decomposes it is effectively recycled and returned to nature.
SKELETONIZATION
The final stage of death is known as ‘dry decay’, when the cadaver has all but dried out: the soft tissue has all gone and only the skeleton remains.
If the cadaver is outside, not only is it exposed to the elements but it also becomes food for scavengers such as rats, crows or foxes.
As the remains are scavenged, the body parts become dispersed so it is not unusual to find skeletal remains some distance from where the body lay at the point of death.
The way in which skeletal remains are scattered in such cases is of interest to archaeologists, and is referred to as taphonomy.
Where a body has lain undiscovered at home for a period of time it has also been known for family pets, typically dogs, to feed on the body. The natural instinct of a pet is to attempt to arouse the deceased by licking them, but once it gets hungry, its survival instinct will take over and it will consider the body as little more than carrion: it will act with the same natural instinct as a scavenger in the wild, which will feed on any corpse, be it animal or human, if it is starving.
Obviously the number of pets, the body mass of the deceased and the time lapse before the body is discovered will influence to what extent it has been devoured.
For further research on the stages of decomposition and the factors that affect it, look up body farms. These are medical facilities where bodies are donated for research purposes so scientists can specifically observe the decomposition process. However, be aware that some of the images are quite graphic.
Source ⚜ More: References ⚜ Autopsy ⚜ Pain & Violence ⚜ Injuries
Bereavement ⚜ Death & Sacrifice ⚜ Cheating Death ⚜ Death Conceptions
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