love is... studying

[fjorn-the-skald]

Lesson 24a - Vikings in Ireland, Part 1: “Tribal, Rural, Hierarchal, and Familiar.”

IRELAND WAS A RATHER UNIQUE PART of the medieval world. Interestingly enough, however, the Irish world was much more like the ‘Viking’ world than many others were at this time, particularly in their political situation and the power of kinship in medieval Irish society. Thus, this lesson will delve into the background of Irish society prior to the arrival of the Vikings. Such an endeavor will make upcoming discussions about their interactions much more clear and profitable.

CONTENTS: I. Medieval Irish Geography and Society II. The Irish Church: A Golden Age

I. MEDIEVAL IRISH GEOGRAPHY AND SOCIETY:

LIKE MEDIEVAL SCANDINAVIA, Ireland was a politically fractured region. It was split into four provinces (Ulster, Leinster, Connacht, and Munster), each ruled by various clans connected through a complex kinship-based network. The complexity of the map below should give a glimpse into the political landscape that existed in Ireland at this time.(1)

Even though there were four ‘official’ provinces, there was, in reality, far more division that that. Interestingly enough, these provinces as a whole were referred to as Cóiceda, or ‘pentarchy’.(2) In other words, these four provinces were each called Cóiced, or a ‘fifth’.(3) This is because, in Irish mythology, there was a fifth province, or kingdom, called Mide, or ‘middle’.(4) Interestingly enough, however, there was no actual Mide, despite the concept being so prevalent.

Irish society has been popularly, and accurately, described as “tribal, rural, hierarchical, and familiar.”(5) In other words, Ireland was divided into kin-based groups (tribal and rural), there were many different levels of ‘king’ (hierarchical), and, because kinship was so prevalent, the system was not like that of England, for example (familiar in the sense of native). 

Therefore, as stated previously, these provinces were not unified under centralized leadership. The political landscape was dominated by various clans, called túatha.(6) These túatha were formed by fine, or kin,(7) and were then ruled over by a certain king. Yet, kinship itself varied greatly. There were four different types of ‘kings’, all varying in their degree of overlordship:

rí túaithe (a petty king, ruling over only one túath)

ruirí (a king over his own túath, but also over others)

rí ruirech (a provincial king, ruling over all túatha in a given cóiced)

ardrí (‘High king’, king of all kings)(8)

Since this is not a lesson on Irish history, it is important to note why such information is pertinent to a discussion about the Vikings coming to Ireland. The Norse world was also heavily based on kinship. It was also a very fractured political landscape, in which families fought for control over regions and resources. Thus, when the Vikings came to the Irish, the Irish were met with a familiar situation. Unlike the other victims of Viking raids, the Irish were better suited to handle their incursions, being aquatinted with the fractured politics that the Vikings themselves had come from. This will clear up more as we move forward, since looking back from a later point will provide us a clearer lens to look through.

II. THE IRISH CHURCH: A GOLDEN AGE:

MANY SCHOLARS ONCE CLAIMED that the Viking raids on Ireland devastated a golden era for Ireland.(9) This is perhaps true, but definitely not inclusive of the overall impact the Norsemen actually had on Ireland as a whole. Yet, saving debates for later, the Irish Church was indeed an impressive entity prior to the coming of the Vikings. Below is an example of the beautiful products of this age, the Book of Kells:

The Irish Church was insular, but international recognized. It was wealthy, involved with the political energy in the air, and tied up within powerful families and their dynasties - just like medieval Iceland, mind you (except Iceland was definitely not wealthy). Yet, there is a key point here. The Church was actively, no passively, tied up in political affairs. That being said, the lines between the Church and secular affairs were very faint.

“Monks and laymen were not cut off from each other. Monastic education was not reserved exclusively for those who were to enter religion but was also given to the sons of church tenants and to some laymen who in adult life would farm and raise families.”(10)

With a Church so mixed with secular affairs, it is to little surprise, then, that the Church would be involved in the tumultuous battles for dominance between túatha. In fact, many of the people who originally formed churches in Ireland were men of the nobility - those who fought for control over resources.(11) Again, this is important for a discussion about the Vikings because this Church of Ireland was already accustomed to violence. 

Feidlimid mac Crimthainn, for example, was an Irish king who caused terror similar to that of the Vikings. The Annals of Ulster record his actions in the year of 833 CE, saying this in the seventh entry for that year:

“Feidlimid, king of Caisel, put to death members of the community of Cluain Moccu Nóis (Clonmacnoise) and burned their church-lands to the very door of their church. The community of Dairmag were treated likewise—to the very door of their church”(12)

Not only was he king, but also a bishop and abbot. Feidlimid was promoting a new reformist movement in the Irish church, “the Célí Dé, [which was] an ascetic group which emphasized prayer, physical works, strict observance of Sundays and feast days, and distrust of women.”(13) This event in the annals was of his punishment towards the community of Clonmacnoise for their refusal to adopt the reformist ways that he was advocating. This fascinating Irishmen is best described by F. J. Byrn:

“In Feidlimid mac Crimthainn we meet one of the most enigmatic figures in Irish history. King and ecclesiastic, overlord of Leth Moga and aspirant to the high-kingship of Ireland, a pious ruler who solemnly proclaimed the Law of Patrick in Munster and who is gratefully remembered in the Vita Tripartita, a friend of the Celi De ascetics, even a member of their order and regarded later as a saint, a renowned warrior. At a most critical era in Irish history, when devastating Viking raids were succeeded by permanent base-camps and settlements, Feidlimid never once devoted his arms to attacking these heathen foreigners but distinguished his martial career by burning and plundering some of the greatest of Irish monasteries.”(14)

CONCLUSION:

IT IS ACTUALLY VERY IMPORTANT to understand the native settings before being able to study the impact of the Vikings and their raids on a particular ‘nation’. Ireland was a unique place, yet in many of the same ways that made medieval Scandinavia a unique place. Even though Ireland was a Christianized land with a brilliant Church, it was deeply intertwined with secular affairs. Irish kings could often be both secular and ecclesiastic. The Church that was attacked by the Vikings was the same Church that was at the center of secular conflict; it was not estranged to violence. Ireland was certainly an interesting place for the Vikings to land.

Next Week: Lesson 24b - Vikings in Ireland, Part 2: Arrival and Initial Impact.

Með vinsemd og virðingu, (With friendliness and kindness,) – Fjorn

_________________________ ENDNOTES: 1. The map actually shows some towns that were settled by Vikings, such as Dublin (which was actually known as Áth Clíath). It is not the most accurate map, but it does well in showing the diversity of Ireland from around the year 900 CE. Fig 1. Erakis, Map of Ireland, circa 900, with Overkingdoms and Principal (Viking) Towns Indicated, 2010. Retrieved from Wikipedia Commons. 2. eDIL, an internet-based Dictionary of the Irish Language.  3. Ibid., singular form of Cóiceda. They are actually still referred to as fifths even today (modern Irish cúige). 4. eDIL. In early Irish mythology, this kingdom was inhabited by the Túatha Dé Danand (the People of the Goddess Danu). These were the Irish gods of old, who once invaded Ireland and settled it. Yet, they were eventually chased into another world, called Síde, by the Sons of Míl (humans from Spain, who then become the ‘Irish’). These tales come from the Lebor Gabála. See Jeffery Gantz, Early Irish Myths and Sagas. (London: Penguin Books, 1981), 7. 5. D.A. Binchy, “Secular Institutions,” in  Early Irish Society, edited my M. Dillon. (Dublin, 1954), 54. 6. eDIL, meaning ‘peoples’. Singular = túath, meaning ‘a people’. 7. eDIL, meaning "a group of persons of the same family or kindred". 8. Although Irish mythology often includes an ardrí, there was not a real one until Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig, who was deemed by the Irish Church as Imperātōr Scōtōrum (latin for ‘emperor of the gaels’) in 1005. 9. To name one such scholar is to name Henry Donald Maurice Spence-Jones and his book The Golden Age of the Church (1906). Although not particularly about the Irish Church, he has this to say of the Vikings and their impact on the Church as a whole:  “The second half of the ninth and tenth century was the saddest of all the Christian centuries…Desolation, mourning, and woe existed in all the fair provinces of the West. The Vikings, the northern sea-pirates, pillaged, burnt, and destroyed in the North and West. …What was saddest of all, God was forgotten, and even in the greatest and most solemn monasteries, disorder reigned unchecked.” (Spence-Jones, 142-43).  We have come a long way from that image, have we not? Fig 2. Book of Kells, Folio 34r, Chi Rho Monogram. Retrieved from Wikipedia Commons. 10. Kathleen Hughes, “The Golden Age of Early Christian Ireland: 7th and 8th centuries,” in The Course of Irish History, 5th ed., edited by T. W. Moody, F. X. Martin, and Dermot Keogh, with Patrick Kiely. (Lanham, MD: Roberts Rhinehart Publishers, 2012), 68. 11. Jennifer Dukes-Knight, “Ireland Before the Vikings,” Lecture, Celtic History, University of South Florida, Fall 2015. 12. Annals of Ulster, 291 (Year U833). Accessed on CELT: The Corpus of Electronic Texts. 13. Michael Staunton, "Saints and Scholars,” in The Voice of the Irish: The Story of Christian Ireland. (Mahwah, NJ: HiddenSpring, 2003), 66. 14. Haggart, Craig. “Feidlimid Mac Crimthainn and the ‘Óentu Maíle Ruain’” Studia Hibernica, no. 33 (2004): 29. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20495158.

DISCLAIMER | VIKING HISTORY | ASK

[discoursets]

[academic-vampire]

𝔱𝔞𝔨𝔢 𝔞 𝔟𝔯𝔢𝔞𝔨

[shakespearesdaughters]

[literaryvein-reblogs]

Writing Notes: Philosophy

Philosophy - aims to ascertain basic existentialist truths of the world around us.

The term comes from “philosophia,” a word that has Greek and Latin origins.

Philosophers examine the nature of reality by posing philosophical questions or problems that they then attempt to solve through critical thinking.

Branches of Philosophy

Much of the value of philosophy lies in the specialization and categorization of philosophical questions that cannot be easily answered with empirical data or scientific knowledge.

Scholars organize such questions into different branches of thought, although there are perhaps as many ways of categorizing the different branches as there are scholars.

Here are just 3 of the potentially dozens of branches of philosophy:

Epistemology: Also called the theory of knowledge, this analytic philosophy studies the scope, validity, and extent of human knowledge—in other words, concepts surrounding how we can confirm what we think we know is true. Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason is an example of epistemology. In this work, Kant disagrees with philosopher David Hume, that our experiences and perceptions of things are subjective—therefore, our knowledge of things is not universal. Epistemology overlaps with many other branches of philosophy since human knowledge is relevant in other areas, such as the philosophy of language and the philosophy of mind.

Ethics: The moral philosophy of ethics is one of the oldest and broadest branches of philosophy. Ethics works to debate values of good and evil and questions where human actions fall on that spectrum. The ancient Greeks struggled with these questions as they developed their societies along two schools of thought—Stoicism and Epicureanism. Although these two schools, established in 300 BC, shared several tenets, they differed in describing the best way to live. Stoics believed that living a just and virtuous life was paramount, while Epicureans believed the search for pleasure should be the highest priority. Due to its broad nature, ethics is pervasive in nearly every academic discipline and overlaps within several other areas of thought, including the philosophy of history, the philosophy of law, and the philosophy of religion.

Metaphysics: The principles of metaphysics question our place in the world and the meaning of life and human existence. Metaphysics, like ethics, began as one of the main branches of philosophy in ancient Greece. One of the premier philosophical works that established the branch was Aristotle’s Physics. In exploring the working mechanics of our reality, Aristotle created foundations of thought that became important to western institutions and religions, like Christianity. Aristotle’s work greatly influenced the thirteenth-century Italian priest Thomas Aquinas, who utilized aspects of Aristotle’s philosophy of nature to confirm the existence of God as the omnipotent architect of the universe. Metaphysics often encompasses or overlaps with the philosophy of science—for example, as scientists grapple with questions related to humanity’s literal and figurative place in the universe.

Historical Figures of Eastern Philosophy

Learn how these notable eastern philosophers shaped their cultures with religion and philosophical breakthroughs throughout the history of philosophy:

Laozi (born circa 570 BCE): The historical existence of Laozi, or Lao Tzu, is disputed, but some believe the Chinese philosopher is the author of the Tao Te Ching, a manuscript central to the philosophical religion known as Daoism (or Taoism). The metaphysical and ethical philosophy promotes living in harmony with nature and doing no harm to others.

Confucius (551–479 BCE): The teachings of this Chinese philosopher and politician formulated the basic tenets of East Asian societies. Known as Confucianism, the Chinese philosophy encouraged family loyalty, ancestral appreciation, and education—concepts that remain important to modern Chinese traditions.

Siddhartha Gautama (born in fifth century BCE): Historians and academics dispute the facts of the life of Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha. By some traditions, he was born into an aristocratic family and enjoyed an entitled life until he decided to pursue a nomadic and ascetic lifestyle. Over time, people attributed teachings to him on self-restraint, meditation, and mindfulness—ideas that grew into a popular world religion.

Jalāl ad-Dīn Mohammad Rūmī (1207–1273): A thirteenth-century Persian poet, Jalāl ad-Dīn Mohammad Rūmī wrote Quranic verses and Sufi poems that scholars still translate and publish today. A large part of philosophy in Rumi’s poetry is his set of values around love and religion. His philosophy of life focused on using art and self-expression to bring humans closer to God.

Historical Figures of Western Philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophers established western philosophy as early as the sixth century BCE. Here are a handful of Greek philosophy figures who created theoretical foundations and frameworks that future generations could use to question their own complex societies:

Socrates (470–399 BCE): The Athenian philosopher Socrates is credited as the founding father of western philosophy and the Socratic method—a form of questioning that scholars in multiple areas of philosophy use to pinpoint shortcomings in logic or beliefs. His teachings were never published but lived on through the work of his student, Plato.

Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE): An influential thinker of the classical Greek period, Plato is famous for his theory of forms, which questions the connection between our minds and reality. He is also remembered for his several published works, like The Republic, which communicated his social and political philosophy.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE): The philosopher Aristotle was a star pupil of Plato’s (another ancient philosopher) and went on to found his own school, called Lyceum. During his career, Aristotle collected and simplified the philosophies of his predecessors and contributed to philosophical work in nearly every aspect of classical Greek culture. He was the first ancient philosopher to analyze the concept of free will.

René Descartes (1596–1650): A French mathematician and philosopher, René Descartes is best known for the existentialism theories he put forth in Discourse on the Method and his statement: “I think, therefore I am.” Descartes’ natural philosophy and metaphysical inquiries, as well as his thoughts on the existence of God, established him as a pioneer of modern philosophy.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831): German philosopher Georg Hegel is best known for his metaphysical concept known as idealism. The concept dictates that the perceptions of a self-conscious mind result in the most accurate interpretations of concrete objects. His work had a dramatic impact on western philosophy in the twentieth century and influenced the works of philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche.

Source ⚜ More: Notes & References ⚜ Writing Resources PDFs

[lawicstudies]

Something interesting came up in my Irish class today when we were learning about family terms - the word for 'brother' in Irish has an interesting origin and had changed over time. I got curious and just had to look it up. Here's what I found (I love making these little etymology charts):

So I found this interesting explanation online about how this split happened because of Ireland's strong monastic tradition - apparently there were so many monks that people needed to distinguish between "brother" meaning a monk and an actual sibling.

But I have another theory too. In Old Irish, bráthair could mean not just "brother" but also "kinsman" or "cousin", kind of like how you might call fellow clan members "brother" (or like how nowadays we sometimes say "brother/bro" for close friends?). Maybe people started needing a way to specify "actual brother" versus "brother-in-arms" or "distant cousin"?

The etymology is fascinating either way - the 'derb-' prefix comes from the same root as English 'true' (both from PIE *drewh₂- meaning "firm/steady") and in Modern Irish it actually evolved into prefix dearbh- — real, blood-.

So nowadays these two words have distinct meanings in Modern Irish: bráthair has an ecclesiastical meaning, while deartháir specifically means a blood brother.

[god-of-annwn]

Arianrhod, Welsh goddess of the moon and stars

From the Welsh, arian = silver and rhod = wheel; taken as meaning the full moon

Arianrhod is mentioned in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogion as the daughter of Dôn and sister of Gwydion and Gilfaethwy. She gives birth to two sons: Dylan ail Don and Lleu Llaw Gyffes.

[bestiarium]

The Fetch [Irish/Scottish folklore]

Imagine unexpectedly meeting a dear friend, who seemingly crossed paths with you by pure coincidence. But something’s wrong: the friend is acting weird and you get the feeling that you’re not talking to someone you’ve known for a long time, but rather an exact copy of that person. This, in old Irish folklore, is the Fetch: an enigmatic being that copies a living person down to the smallest details.

While the Fetch was always regarded as an omen of sorts, John O’ Hanlon made an important addition in his 1870 book ‘Irish Folk Lore’: according to him, the person whose future the Fetch predicts is not the one who sees the omen. Instead, the creature will appear as an exact copy of someone and will then appear to a close friend of the one he copied. This will often be a strangely sudden and mysterious meeting. If this friend sees the Fetch in the morning, this will not affect him, but the person who was copied will live a long and prosperous life. If the friend sees the Fetch at night, the person who was copied will die soon, but the person who sees the apparition will not be affected either way.

According to Feats, belief in the Irish Fetch was also commonly found in Scotland. This claim might have been derived from a statement by O’Hanlon that the Fetch is related to a similar Scottish spirit.

Sources: Kinahan, F., 1983, Armchair Folklore: Yeats and the Textual Sources of “Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry”, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Section C: Archaeology, Celtic Studies, History, Linguistics, Literature, Vol. 83C, pp. 255-267. Yeats, W., 1993, Writings on Irish Folklore, Legend and Myth, Penguin UK, 496 pp. (this is a collection of Yeats’ writings from the late 19th and early 20th century.) (image source: ‘How They Met Themselves’, 1864 watercolor painting by Dante Rossetti. The painting is not meant to depict the Fetch spirit but I thought it fits well.)

[feralscribe]

"dénae-su inso ara mbé a lóg duit íarum" = "do this so that you may have its reward afterwards"

I keep this quote on the wall above my desk to motivate me to do work but it's clearly not working since I started this blog instead

[xanaxfarts]

The Fairy Glen location: Isle of Skye, Scotland

[druidicentropy]

*Deh₂nu

*Deh₂nu- is a hypothetical goddess of water in Proto-Indo-European mythology, with connections to the names of rivers like the Danube, Don, Dnieper, and Dniester, as well as the Vedic deity Dānu, the Irish Danu, and the Welsh Dôn. Despite acknowledging a possible lexical connection, Mallory and Adams contend that there is not enough evidence to support the idea that a distinct river goddess existed in Proto-Indo-European beliefs. They primarily highlight the Indic tradition's understanding of river deification. Furthermore, Mallory and Adams suggest that a theory for a sea god called *Trih₂tōn—whose name is derived from the Greek Triton and the Old Irish word for sea, trïath—is unsupported by the lack of a corresponding sea god in Irish mythology and only minor lexical similarities. The Ossetian god Donbettyr is also mentioned in the story. Who is placated by gifts to keep the waterwheel turning, and who Donnán of Eigg proposes as a Christian equivilent of this figure.

Moreover, this deity and the Dan river in Centeral Asia may have similar etymologies.

She is frequently seen as the mother of a mythical tribe, the *Deh₂newyóes, in many Indo-European cultures; these tribes are deduced from the Vedic Danavas, the Irish Tuatha Dé Danann, the Greek Danaoi, and the Norse Danes. Under Bel's leadership, this tribe is said to have fought a hero called *H₂nḗrtos, which could connect them to characters like the Norse god Njord, the Nart from the Nart saga, and Indra's epithet nrtama.

[finnlongman]

Old Irish translation of Tolkien's poem about the Rings of Power, translated by David Stifter. [Twitter thread/source] [Bluesky thread/source]

[yvanspijk]

Ancient Greek híppos, Latin equus, Irish each, and Icelandic jór all mean 'horse', and Spanish yegua and Romanian iapă mean 'mare'. They're very different, yet they ultimately stem from the same Proto-Indo-European word. They drifted apart due to the sound changes they underwent.

What would their modern English, German, Dutch, French and Italian cognates look like if they had survived? I tell about it on my Patreon.

[lawicstudies]

The poem "Pangur Bán"

For my Old Irish class, I had to do a word-by-word translation of the poem “Pangur Bán”, breaking down each word's grammatical form, identifying cases, and explaining various linguistic features like lenition and nasalization. Here's my translation:

Me and white Pangur, each of us two at his particular art. His mind is fixed on hunting, while my mind is at my special craft.

I love stillness, better than any fame, at my little book in diligent understanding. Not envious of me is white Pangur, he loves still his little play.

When we are thus, a tale without weariness, in our house in our solitude, we have unlimited accomplishment, against which we bring our victory.

At usual times in valorous attacks he catches a mouse in his net; while I, I catch in my net meanwhile a difficult assertion with firm meaning.

He sharpens against the wall's boundary his eye, this bright one complete. I sharpen meanwhile against knowledge's keenness my clear eye, though it be dim.

He rejoices with swift movement, when he catches a mouse in his sharp claws. When I understand a difficult beloved question, while I besides am joyful.

Though we are thus at all times, none disturbs his fellow. Good with each of us two is his craft, he rejoices in his solitude.

He himself is master to him in the way he works each day; to bring the difficult to clarity upon my way while I am me.

The poem was discovered in the library of an ancient monastery in the Eastern Alps, in southern Austria. Written in the margins of a manuscript by an anonymous Irish monk, the poem dates to the early 9th century. It was found in what scholars believe was the monk's working notebook, where he would practice his translations and annotations.

"Pangur Bán" offers us a uniquely personal glimpse into monastic life. The name "Pangur" is likely the cat's actual name, while "Bán" means "white" in Old Irish. The poem draws a charming parallel between the monk's scholarly pursuits and his white cat's hunting activities, suggesting both are engaged in their own form of hunting - one for knowledge, the other for mice.

Some interesting observations:

I was struck by how the poem creates a ring composition, starting and ending with me-sse' (which parallels French 'moi' rather than just English 'me')

This was my first real encounter with Old Irish emphatic particles in practice — forms like 'menmae-som' (his mind) and 'fáilid-sem' (he rejoices). While we covered these in class, seeing them in an actual text made their usage much clearer

The verb 'to be' (át-ta) appeared in more forms than I expected. We had covered the basics in class, but the poem showcases its rich variety of forms

I enjoyed spotting the diminutive forms like lebrán (little book) from lebor (book) — they add such a personal touch to the monk's writing

The compound words were particularly fascinating. Beyond the common ones we'd learned, I discovered some lovely new combinations: saindán (sain + dán = special art), saincheirdd (sain + cheirdd = special craft), and my favourite, dronchéill (dron + ciall = firm sense)

The word 'subaigthius' puzzled me until my professor mentioned it contains the passive suffix. I knew it came from 'subaigidir' (to rejoice), but the ending was new to me

[flowerytale]

"I wish you joy" Jane Austen, from a letter to her brother Frank (26 July 1809)

[irisharchaeology]

Saint Colman of Templeshanbo, Co. Wexford feeding his pet ducks. The image dates from circa AD 1200 and is taken from Topographia Hiberniae by Gerald of Wales (Royal 13 B VIII)

[bestiarium]

The Fetch [Irish/Scottish folklore]

Imagine unexpectedly meeting a dear friend, who seemingly crossed paths with you by pure coincidence. But something’s wrong: the friend is acting weird and you get the feeling that you’re not talking to someone you’ve known for a long time, but rather an exact copy of that person. This, in old Irish folklore, is the Fetch: an enigmatic being that copies a living person down to the smallest details.

While the Fetch was always regarded as an omen of sorts, John O’ Hanlon made an important addition in his 1870 book ‘Irish Folk Lore’: according to him, the person whose future the Fetch predicts is not the one who sees the omen. Instead, the creature will appear as an exact copy of someone and will then appear to a close friend of the one he copied. This will often be a strangely sudden and mysterious meeting. If this friend sees the Fetch in the morning, this will not affect him, but the person who was copied will live a long and prosperous life. If the friend sees the Fetch at night, the person who was copied will die soon, but the person who sees the apparition will not be affected either way.

According to Feats, belief in the Irish Fetch was also commonly found in Scotland. This claim might have been derived from a statement by O’Hanlon that the Fetch is related to a similar Scottish spirit.

Sources: Kinahan, F., 1983, Armchair Folklore: Yeats and the Textual Sources of “Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry”, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Section C: Archaeology, Celtic Studies, History, Linguistics, Literature, Vol. 83C, pp. 255-267. Yeats, W., 1993, Writings on Irish Folklore, Legend and Myth, Penguin UK, 496 pp. (this is a collection of Yeats’ writings from the late 19th and early 20th century.) (image source: ‘How They Met Themselves’, 1864 watercolor painting by Dante Rossetti. The painting is not meant to depict the Fetch spirit but I thought it fits well.)