Norway - Meanwhile in the North Cape...
Remember in December 2013, “interaction in the Arctic”[1] topped again the Russian-Norwegian agenda as a delegation of the Federation Council upper house of Russia's parliament arrived in Norway for talks with Oslo. Since the Cold War ended, the Arctic issue has become more and more pregnant. Indeed, the global climate change has created new opportunities in the Arctic. Furthermore, a new increase in average global temperature of 1.4 to 5.8°C over the course of this century would facilitate the access of natural resources in the High North.
As a result, since 90s, Norway is constantly rebalancing its security/defense policy, while taking into account that one of its closer neighbors, Russia, might be a potential threat as well as a major partner. This has led Norway to reaffirm its sovereignty in the High North, through a tailored national security policy. But, what kind of instruments of the Norwegian national security Oslo is developing, applying and coordinating in the High North? What are the objectives of this security policy in Arctic? This is what we are going to see in this article. So, fasten your belt and enjoy your flight.
Facing contradictory aspirations
In Arctic more than elsewhere, Norway has set up a security policy based on a cost-effective equation which notably focuses on the economic field.
In fact, the Norwegian security policy in the High North aims to closely endorse the country’s economic interests - a purpose that is shared by many other Arctic states[2]. Badly, Oslo is affected by contradictory aspirations. On one hand, Norway has a true concern for the environmental issue in the High North, notably for the Svalbard archipelago. On the other hand, the country is heavily relying on its hydrocarbons exports. Typically, Norway is the second world’s largest exporter of gas and the 8th largest on the hydrocarbons field[3]. Furthermore, the Arctic region is promising, as the region may be home to “an estimated 22% of the world’s undiscovered conventional oil and gas deposits, according to the U.S. Geological Survey”[4]. Characteristically, Statoil, a fully integrated Norwegian multinational oil and gas company, has signed an agreement with Gazprom in 2010 on technology sharing and cooperation, in order to enhance the developmental phase of the large offshore Shtokman field in the Russian Federation[5].
From the Norwegian perspective, the environmental issue is also a crucial topic, as a part of the Norway’s local economy is also based on the fishery. The fact is the control and the regulation of fishing often leads to tensions between Russia and Norway, because cods, haddocks and capelins are migrating every year from one Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to another, but also because both countries do not agree on a resolution agenda. Furthermore, Norway has the responsibility to protect one of the largest EEZ in Europe, around 2 million of km2, seven times larger than the Norwegian surface area. In Arctic, the monitoring of the EEZ might be a burning issue as soon as Russia will become an important polluter in the region. Moscow is already facing difficulties with its different projects of nuclear wastes import and management.[6]
In 1998, Rear-Admiral Bjornar Kibsgaard, former Norwegian navy officer and senior analyst, wrote a research paper on the Norwegian economic interests. The list included: 1) ensuring a durable and rational exploitation of natural resources on the continental shelf; 2) securing market’s access; 3) defending its maritime sovereignty rights, while trying to keep low the level of tensions with other actors around its borders[7].
As a result, the Norwegian security policy in Arctic is, first and foremost, affected by a mix of economic interests and environmental regards that place the country in a noteworthy paradox. However, the way of Norway perceives the other Arctic states and the potential threats associated also plays a crucial role.
Russia as a central actor
In the light of its geographical position, its economic interests in Arctic and its institutional belonging, Norway has set up a global security policy that is articulated on three key-relationships with NATO, and particularly with the U.S., but also with the European Union and Russia.
Actually, Norway is an uneasy relationship with Russia and regularly stresses the need for cooperation and engagement. In a white paper on the Norwegian defense transformation, called Omleggingen av Forsvaret (2005), Russia is described as “not military threatening Norway. Soon, relationships between Norway and Russia – a small country and a great power – will continue to develop asymmetrically. Managing this relationship will remain a complex task for the Norwegian security policy.” Indeed, Oslo has tailored a dual policy of cooperation with Moscow, “while at the same time watching closely Russian military development, designing [strong] homeland military capacities and advocating for the involvement of NATO along with the Artic Council.” Frederic Lasserre explained in the Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, Volume 14.[8]
Even though Russia is still perceived in Norway as a threat for environment, and even though Norway remains suspicious about the Russian ambition in Arctic, Moscow is now considered as a geo-economic factor. After the years of weakness following the fall of communism, Moscow has shown desire and interest for a close engagement in the Arctic, notably in the economic field. However, this new-born cooperation has been recently shaken by Russian demonstrations of force in the High North. For instance, in 2007, President Poutine has commanded Russian bombers (Tupolev Tu-95) to fly over the Arctic, in order to assert the Russian presence in the region.[9]
This show of force is a reminder of tensions that remain between Norway and Russia, including the fishery issue in Barents Sea, the “pro-militarization” stance of Russia about the Svalbard archipelago and the risk of pollution in the Kola Peninsula. Typically, cooperation between both countries in this field is uneasy. In February 2007, the Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation (AME) Norwegian co-President Ingjerd Kroken, mandated to monitor the Russian nuclear installations in Kola Peninsula, has been declared persona non grata by the Russian authorities. Earlier the same year, Norway had given 1,3bn of Norwegian crones to Russia, in order to help Moscow solving this issue[10].
(Credit: Reuben Wu)
To conclude, the current Norwegian security policy in Arctic is mainly tailored to tackle the issues caused by its Russian neighbor, but also to support the Norwegian activities in the arctic region. In this matter, Russia remains a great concern as the relationship between Oslo and Moscow is definitely asymmetrical.
Building-up capabilities in the High North
As we saw below, the Norwegian security policy is mainly dependent on a structural framework where NATO, the U.S., the European Union and Russia are central actors. By focusing on a strategic status quo in the arctic region, Oslo has chosen to start a gradual securing of non-military stakes in the High North. First, this “soft security” policy focuses in the economic field, especially in natural resources. In short, the purpose is to capture Washington’s attention on the Arctic. Secondly, when Oslo published the High North Strategy review in 2006, the Norwegian government clearly conceded the Arctic issue was exclusively dependent on the relationship between Norway and Russia.[11]
As a result, the Norwegian Armed Forces are playing a dual role, 1) providing background information for national decision - making through up-to-date surveillance and intelligence, 2) maintaining a presence in the High North “both to enable Norway to exercise its sovereignty and authority and to ensure that it can maintain its role in resource management.”[12]
Since 2006, Norway has confirmed its interest for the High North, through the Declaration of Soria Moria (2007), then with a new defense concept called Capable Force (2009) and finally with a White Paper (2011). Generally speaking, Norway has made a special effort in terms of defense spending with an increase of 30% from $6.5bn in 2010 to $7bn in 2011[13]. Other decisions may attest to the recent shift in policy described in the Norwegian government High North Strategy review. First, Norwegian submarines (6 German-made Ula-class submarines) are patrolling in Northern part of the country more often in recent years, even though Oslo decided to shut down the Olavsvern base in 2009. Secondly, the Norwegian government announced in 2012 that one of its land units will be transformed into an “Arctic battalion”. Furthermore, in 2009, Norway decided to switch its general headquarter from Stavanger (100km to the south of Bergen) to Bodo, located in the Northern part of the country. Last but not least, Oslo finally decided to transfer the Norwegian Coast Guard (Kystvakten) headquarter to a northern place.
The launching of the fifth Fridtjof Nansen-class frigate, the Thor Heyerhal, in 2009 has risen “much speculation about the motivation of the Norwegian government for such a potent unit, equipped with the Aegis multi-target air tracking system[14]”. In fact, the Nansen class has been ordered in 2000 to replace the ageing Oslo-class frigates. The same for the 6 Skjöld-class patrol boats ordered in 2000. In other words, most of the recent acquisitions made by the Norwegian military are, either replacement, or equipment to enhance the Norwegian capabilities of maintaining its role in resource management, including environmental protection. Once again, the shift to the High North mostly focuses on “soft security”. Only two ships have been designed for Arctic operations, the Svalbard, an Arctic offshore patrol vessel (Lloyd’s ice class 1AS[15]) that Norway laid down in 2000 and commissioned by the Norwegian Coast Guard in 2002 and the Harstad, a smaller multipurpose offshore patrol vessel (Lloyd’s ice class 1B), optimized for emergency towing of large oil tankers, oil spill cleanup and firefighting. Both ships are ensuring fishery inspection and search and rescue in Norway EEZ. Oslo has also planned to replace the NoCGV Chieftain, Tromsø and Stålbas, with 3 new Barentshav-class OPVs (Lloyd’s ice class 1A) to enhance search & rescue and tug readiness along the shore of Norway[16]. The 6 Skjöld-class patrol boats, operated by the Royal Norwegian Navy, do not carry torpedoes and have no ice-breaking capabilities, only allowing them to patrol in the southern part of the country.
In the intelligence and surveillance field, Oslo ordered a new research vessel, to replace the Marjata, that patrolled the Barents Sea for the past 15 years. On the other hand, the 6 turboprop anti-submarine and maritime surveillance aircraft Lockheed P-3 Orion in service since 1969 are ageing[17]. A replacement soon would not be a surprise. In true, “the Barents Sea treaty of 2011 and the confidence-building measures between Russia and Norway do not mean Norway is no longer watching what Russia is doing in Arctic seas”, Lasserre concluded.
As far we know, the Norwegian Armed Forces are tailored to ensure “soft security” missions on the High North, enabling Norway to exercise its sovereignty and authority, but not much. The defense spending carefully follows this strategy by focusing on the replacement of the oldest equipment, with a regard on the coast guards capabilities.
Did you say militarization ?
To conclude, there is no militarization of the High North, at least, as far Oslo is concerned. In fact, the Norwegian security policy is based on a cost-effective equation, which aims to maintain a presence in the High North. The Norwegian purpose behind that equation is to maintain a first-class role in the local resource management.
In this matter, Russia is perceived as a central actor. Formerly a major threat, Moscow is now considered as a geo-economic factor and a privileged partner. However, the relationship between Oslo and Moscow being definitely asymmetrical, Oslo doesn’t want to provoke its mighty neighbor.
Consequently, the Norwegian security policy has been tailored to only ensure the minimal requirements to maintain Oslo’s sovereignty, to protect the environment and the Norwegian economic interests in Arctic, but with a minimum level of resources allocated. In few years, the melting of the polar ice may cause an increase of the Norwegian military activity. However, the local security architecture should not dramatically change.
[1] Voice of Russia, Russian delegation to Norway to discuss Arctic interaction [Online] [Accessed on 12/23/2013], 2013, available at: http://voiceofrussia.com/news/2013_12_05/Russian-delegation-to-Norway-to-discuss-Arctic-interaction-2174/.
[2] Christopher Summer, Arctic Solutions: The Frozen (Thawing) Relations of the High North, IFRI, February 2010, p.10.
[3] Alexandre Taithe et al. Arctique : perspectives stratégiques et militaires, Fondation pour la recherche stratégique, Recherches & Documents, N°03/2013, Novembre 2013, p.34.
[4] Scott Borgerson, The Arctic opens up, Foreign Affairs, 2013, p.80.
[5] OffshoreTechnology.com, Shtokman Gas Condensate Deposit Barents Sea, Russia [Online] [Accessed on 12/20/2013], 2010,Available at: http://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/shtokman/.
[6] Godzimirski, Jakub, Grand enjeux dans le Grand-Nord: Les relations Russie-Norvège et leurs implications pour l’UE, Russie.Nei.Visions n°25, Décembre 2007, pp.14
[7] Ibid, p.14
[8] Frederic Lasserre et al. Is there an arms race in the Arctic ?, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, Volume 14, issues 3&4, 2012, p.9.
[9] BBC News, UK jets shadow Russian bombers [Online] [Accessed on 12/21/2013], 2007, Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6981541.stm.
[10] Jakub Godzimirski, Grand enjeux dans le Grand-Nord: Les relations Russie-Norvège et leurs implications pour l’UE, Russie.Nei.Visions n°25, Décembre 2007, p.10.
[11] François Perreault, Les enjeux de sécurité dans l’Arctique contemporain : le cas du Canada et de la Norvège , Département de science politique, Faculté des études supérieures, Université de Montréal, 2010, p.107.
[12] Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Norwegian government’s High North strategy, 2006, p.19.
[13] CIA World Factbook [Online] [Accessed on 12/21/2013], Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/.
[14] Frederic Lasserre et al. Is there an arms race in the Arctic ?, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, Volume 14, issues 3&4, 2012, p.41.
[15] 1AS, are designed to operate in difficult ice conditions mainly without icebreaker assistance while ships of lower ice classes 1A, 1B and 1C are assumed to rely on icebreaker assistance.
[16] Frederic Lasserre et al. Is there an arms race in the Arctic ?, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, Volume 14, issues 3&4, 2012, p.43.
[17] Alexandre Taithe et al. Arctique : perspectives stratégiques et militaires, Fondation pour la recherche stratégique, Recherches & Documents, N°03/2013, Novembre 2013, p.34.










