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Affirmative Action, Admissions, and Equity

One of the major issues that continually headlines higher education is Affirmative Action.  From historical court cases to contemporary conversations around diversity in higher education, it seems that affirmative action is still a topic of debate.   Although Affirmative Action policies were an initiative to diversify higher education student populations, the topic has evolved into a debate of reverse discrimination against Whites. 

“With regard to challenges to Affirmative Action, the Supreme Court in recent years has consistently found a compelling interest on the part of higher education institutions to diversify their student bodies (McClellan, 2009, pp. 234). However, within the past couple of years it would seem that affirmative action-like policies are affecting a different racial group in the US: Asian Americans. To understand the current issues pertaining to Affirmative Action, it is essential to understand its purpose and history.

In the 1920’s the United States saw a significant decrease in Jewish applicants and students at Harvard and other Ivy League institutions. This was due to the implementation of a Jewish quota or numerous clausus.  “The most significant proponent of restricting Jewish admissions was Harvard’s President Lowell.  Lowell had succeeded Charles Eliot in 1909.  Lowell’s and Eliot’s relationship to Louis Brandeis illustrated the very different feelings they had towards Jews as students, citizens, and public officials” (Pollak, 1983, pp. 113).  Brandeis was a Jewish American and the potential successor to Lowell as the next president of Harvard. Brandeis ultimately became a Supreme Court Justice after disputes with Lowell.  “When Columbia University’s Jewish enrollment had risen to 40 percent and then was reduced to 22 percent, Lowell feared that uncontrolled enrollments at Harvard would increase the Jewish presence to 40 per cent, well beyond the optimum mix to create a representative American college community” (Pollak, 1983, pp. 114).  The Jewish quota or Lowell Plan was put forth into action because of discrimination and fear of losing cultural capital.  Lowell was afraid that if Jewish students made up a larger portion of enrollments at Harvard, it would then result in in a societal shift in the dynamics of power and resources.  “These derogatory perceptions are not unique to Jews and have been applied to other newcomers to America.  It was the Jew, however, who exercised his freedom to attain education most vigorously” (Pollak, 1983, pp. 117).  Note that this was all happening before Affirmative Action or any other systems of equitable admissions was put in place.  Jewish students were being enrolled based on merit and educational achievements alone.

Affirmative Action would not even come into play for almost another 40 years.  The United States first introduced Affirmative Action in the 1960’s in hopes to create equitable change caused by many years of segregation, resource discrimination, and prejudice (institutional racism).  Although Affirmative Action was first created to provide equitable hiring processes for people in marginalized groups, it would eventually find its way into higher education and college admissions.  “Affirmative Action – was incorporated into higher education personnel decisions, with particular attention to faculty appointments.  In a distinct but related development, it was extended to include decisions about students, namely admissions policies and practices” (Thelin, 2011, pp. 347).  Affirmative Action has encountered many legal cases such as Regents of the University of California vs. Bakke in 1978, Hopwood vs. Texas in 1998, Gratz vs. Bollinger in 2003, and more.  All of these cases pertained to the idea of reverse discrimination against Whites.

While it is still up for debate about the exact results of Affirmative Action, it would seem that racial quotas still exist today.  Affirmative Action is creating a similar effect amongst Asian American students today, similar to the effects with Jewish American students in the 1920’s. Asian American students have seen a gradual decline in numbers at Ivy League institutions.  “The percentage of Asian-Americans enrolled at Harvard fell by more than 50 percent over the last two decades, while the percentage of whites changed little. This decline in relative Asian-American enrollment was actually larger than the impact of Harvard's 1925 Jewish quota, which reduced Jewish freshmen from 27.6 percent to 15 percent” (Friedersdorf, 2012).   

“While institutions suggest that reform is progressive, developmental, and accretive, historical analysis reveals that the roots of the Harvard Plan were a mask for discrimination” (Pollak, 1983, pp. 120).  Would it be possible that Harvard is continuing these unconstitutional and illegal quotas?  The statistics do speak for themselves.  The Jewish quotas were implemented to maintain a “balance” but it really seemed like it was created to maintain ideal White supremacy in higher education and society.  Whenever a population of color or marginalized group of people begin to excel in higher education, they have been met with institutional barriers and challenges.  Why are the White percentages at Ivy League institutions not changing much?

   Though it is important to create diversity by the numbers, demographics and population statistics alone do not create equitable environments.  Admission of students of color is one concern but retention is another major factor that higher education faces today.  “Structural diversity, while instrumental and important in its own right, is not solely sufficient in assuring the educational impact of multicultural and international learning communities (McClellan, 2009, pp. 237).  It is essential to have both a diverse student body and an inclusive, critically minded campus climate.  From history, we can find that institutions have created certain barriers for marginalized groups, and even today, institutional barriers may still exist, but they are only affecting a different group of people.  Affirmative action is creating more equitable admissions into higher education but there is still a need for more inclusive living and learning environments.  College campuses have a lot of potential for being the major movement for social change and equitable outcomes.     

Works Cited

Friedersdorf, C. (2012). Is the Ivy League Fair to Asian Americans?. The Atlantic. Retrieved on December 9, 2014, at  http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/12/is-the-ivy-league-fair-to-asian-americans/266538/

McClellan, G. S., Stringer, J.  (2009). The Handbook of Student Affairs Administration.  Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint. 

Pollack, O. B. (1983). Antisemitism, the Harvard Plan, and Roots of Reverse Discrimination. Jewish Social Studies, 45(2), 113-122. 

Thelin, J. R. (2004). A history of American higher education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Unz, R. (2013).  Statistics Indicate an Ivy League Asian Quota.  The New York Times.  Retrieved on December 9, 2014, at http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/12/19/fears-of-an-asian-quota-in-the-ivy-league/statistics-indicate-an-ivy-league-asian-quota

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Higher Education: A History of Racial Discrimination and Violence

In the wake of recent events in Ferguson, Missouri and the local hunting dispute case of Sao Lue Vang in Pepin, Wisconsin, it is important to discuss how issues of racism and violence have affected college students throughout history into the present. The issue of racism and violence on campus sparked as individual acts upon other individuals. Over time, these acts have clustered into movements of empowerment and voices for change, not only for individuals or groups on campus, but for the greater good of the society as a whole.

 The education system in this society, from the very beginning, was exclusive.  Only those who were white, male, Christian, and wealthy had fair access to higher education. With the 1636 establishment of Harvard University by the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony1, it was clear that people of color were not welcomed in higher education systems. Even the onset of the Historically Black Colleges and Universities in the United States were only due to segregation, not progress. In 1890, Congress passed the second Morrill Act to establish separate land grant colleges for Blacks.  As stated by McClellan in The Handbook of Student Affairs Administrations, “the emancipation of slaves after the Civil War created an urgent need for educational services – On the eve of the Civil War, there were 4 million people in the United States, but only twenty-nine Blacks earned a bachelor’s degree between 1619 and 1850” (McClellan, 2009, pp.27).  After the desegregation of school systems in 1954 with Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, the processes to integrate were slow and met with a lot of backlash.  Take the case of James Meredith and the integration of Ole Miss in 1962.  After a long and hectic legal battle, Meredith was the first Black person successfully enrolled into Ole Miss.  This caused an initial uproar of riots and violence which resulted in the death of two people and injuring of over 400 people (Cohodas, 1997, pp.122). From the events at Old Miss, it is easy to see the social, educational, and political progress. Yet, at the same time it also revealed the systemic and individual systems of oppression within higher education institutions.

Institutions of Higher Education provide students of color with exposure to institutional and direct acts of racism.  From the bases of curriculums and classroom dynamics to the living arrangements on college campuses, students of color are marginalized and forced to fit into a hegemonic White system. When students of color finally choose to speak up and stand against certain issues in society, it is because they have had enough.  There is great lengths of research done on the silencing of people of color. Hmong students, like other students of color, are marginalized, tokenized, and essentialized in higher education.  You won’t hear or find much on Hmong students protesting or rioting over many issues because of the power dynamics of race. Assimilation and internalized racism also take effect on people of color, many choose to be silent on different issues of injustices.  However, the time period during college provides the space, empowerment, stage, and voice for students of color to be heard. Because of this, students are able to create movements for larger issues beyond campus like these current events. The issues of racism and violence are no longer seen as just an issue of individual identity, but an identity that is tied to the greater society.

In the wake of Ferguson, MO and many racist hunting incidents in the state of Wisconsin, a coalition of Hmong college students are uniting to protest against the unequal justice systems.  With the current racist hunting incident in Pepin, Wisconsin in which a 64-year-old Hmong man was severely beaten by a White hinter, Hmong students have united in solidarity. They have seen enough and choose to stand in together and other people of color5. 

Within the recent events of Ferguson, many college and university campuses are protesting or rallying and calling for changes in the systems of justice and education.  Here at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, students protested and marched to the local police department and took turns expressing different reasons why the results in Ferguson can and do affect us3.  At the University of Wisconsin in Madison students took to protesting in silence on the decisions made in Ferguson4.  Note that many protests done by students of color are non-violent based.  There are many reasons why students choose to protest and speak out, but a majority of the time, students of color protests are related to race relations and racism whereas majority White protests may not be.  What is the difference when students of color unite to protest, though? 

When observing the reasons why students choose to riot and protest throughout history, there is a pattern where White students have rioted mostly to maintain power and privilege.  In the late 60’s and 70’s many student riots and protests were based on ending the Vietnam War, but within recent history a majority of student riots have been based on athletics or other issues.  This does not dismiss the hate and racism that still exists, as shown in the Ole Miss riot in 2012.  After the re-election of President Barack Obama, over 400 hundred students took to the streets of the University of Mississippi.  Race and racism were the main factors in this riot.  Racial slurs and derogatory statements and profanity were chanted by students2.  Race related riots have existed for a very long time in higher education and as we transition to 2014, we can still find that different systems and institutions are not equitable to students of color. 

As future student affairs professionals and people working with college students, it is essential to realize the systems of privilege and oppression.  I believe that making social justice and critical race theory courses required for all students is the next step.  This will have to be a collaboration between the realms of student affairs and academic affairs because there needs to be progressive change in the curriculum requirements but also a change in student life and campus culture/climate.  Until these pieces are recognized and there is more support and funding for areas and offices that address these issues, having an Inclusive Excellence plan will not do too much.  With the increase of race related tensions building up in this country, it would seem about time that institutions of higher education make it a priority to educate and support social justice teachings and values.      

             1 http://www.harvard.edu/history      

2 http://www.cbsnews.com/news/racial-slurs-yelled-at-ole-miss-obama-protest/

3 http://www.news8000.com/news/local-students-protest-ferguson-decision/29935272

4 http://badgerherald.com/news/2014/12/04/uw-students-hold-vigil-outside-basketball-game-for-victims-of-police-brutality/#.VICwT5-9KSN

5 http://www.leadertelegram.com/news/daily_updates/article_e660dcbc-7bb8-11e4-b7c9-178f5bcba03d.html

Cohodas, N.  (1997). James Meredith and the Integration of Ole Miss.  The Journal of Blacks in Higher     Education. 16. (112-122).    

McClellan, G. S., Stringer, J.  (2009). The Handbook of Student Affairs Administration.  Jossey-Bass A       Wiley Imprint. 

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Race, Campus Culture, and White Spaces

What is this claim about White spaces?  In higher education we can find White spaces existing in many forms from academic buildings, residence halls, dining halls, and study areas on college campuses.  White spaces exist in cultural context because they are manifested from the systems of privilege and oppression.  Note that White spaces are not based on segregation by law anymore, but segregation by cultural differences and privilege.  I am discussing the results of a long history of segregation and racism.  Legally speaking, the segregation in public institutions of higher education ended with Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in 1954 (Thelin, 2011, pg. 269).  This court ruling marked an unprecedented moment in American history and would change the dynamics and populations on campuses across the country. 

Even with the integration in education today, there is still the segregation of cultures, which contributes to the segregated spaces in educational settings.  These separated spaces are subtle and not explored because they are socialized spaces created by the dynamics of in-grouping. Examples of these socialized safe spaces at UW-La Crosse are Campus Climate and OMSS offices, resources utilized by students of color. These are spaces where students of color find themselves socializing, hanging out, and feeling ‘safe’.  These are spaces that are unconsciously created by socialization as a result of the overwhelming White spaces across different college campuses. 

Am I arguing that White spaces are excluding students of color?  Understanding the concept of White spaces as mainstream or normal spaces is very essential to this conversation because what we understand to be mainstream and normalized is also very White.  I am stating that spaces can be racialized, and in institutions of higher education, they are racialized.  If a student of color is tokenized, marginalized, or essentialized institutionally then a space would therefore be a White space.  As Dr. Beverly Tatum explains in her book Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?, students of color begin to explore their racial identity when they enter their adolescent years.  “Conversely, it could be pointed out that there are many groups of White students sitting together, though people rarely comment about that” (Tatum, 1997, pg. 52).  It is true that when Whites students only socialize with other White students not many people will call attention to it.  It is not uncommon for students of color to hear phrases like “Why do you only hangout with Hmong people?”, “Do you dislike White people?”, or “Why do Black students only hangout together?”.  These are not only problematic questions but they are questions that are rooted in a system of privilege.

In my experience as a student of color in a predominantly White institution, I have found that it is easier to feel safe and comfortable around other students of color.  I do not have to deal with racial jokes, microaggressions, and other forms of racism if I am with other students of color.  White peers are not automatically ‘bad’ people but we need to understand that society teaches White people to internalize their position of power similar to how society teaches people of color to internalize their inferiority.  Wise explains this idea in his book White Like Me. He writes, “the flipside of oppression – namely, privilege – adhered to members of the dominant racial group, irrespective of our own personal ‘goodness’.  Although there was certainly discussions about the way that all whites had internalized certain biases, having been raised in a culture that so readily teaches them, there was also a discussion of how people of color had inculcated those biases against themselves, and often acted from a place of internalized oppression” (Wise, 2008, pg. 178).   

Although many institutions of higher education have diversity goals and initiatives, there are still many improvements to be made.  Diversity provides college campus climates with a multitude of different people but without inclusive sharing and teaching of different languages, histories, and values beyond the mainstream, it is difficult to attain educational equity.  Understanding the history of segregation is important in working to deconstruct segregated spaces today.  As Student Affairs professionals and faculty members engage with more and more diverse populations, there needs to be a higher standard of diverse knowledge and understanding.  Racial identity and cultural identity are very important aspects to understanding the systemic problem of White spaces in higher education.  Without the support for studying different systems of knowledge in higher education, professionals are going to continue to be blind to this issue.

So how do we deconstruct White spaces? As future student affairs professionals, it is important to support policies that create more inclusive learning objectives.  Being conscious and critical about spaces and identities are individualistic approaches to becoming more progressive in this issue.  Overall it is important to remember that these spaces and issues have been created throughout history and that they will not be solved overnight. That should not deter us from pursuing to create more equitable opportunities and dismantling spaces and systems of oppression.

  Tatum, B. D. (2003). "Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?": And other conversations about race. New York: Basic Books.

Thelin, J. R. (2004). A history of American higher education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins      University Press.

Wise, T. J. (2005). White like me. Brooklyn, NY: Soft Skull Press.

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How is Academic History Valued and Whose History is Valued in Contemporary America?

In history and from history we are able to find different accounts of how institutions were ran and who had the privilege and power of running these institutions.  Of course it is Institutions of Higher Education that is the focus but take note that the same people also have the influence and power over other institutions in society.  What is the purpose of higher education in America?  

From the very beginning during the Colonial Period institutions of Higher Education served those who were able to afford and attend them.  The curriculum was heavily influenced by religious leaders and thus we find that from the very start education in America was not inclusive for everyone.  Studies were focused around biblical text, mathematics, and learning ancient languages such as Latin (Thelin, 2011, Pg. 19).  Now when we observe what is valuable and useful in today's society it would not make much sense to incorporate Christianity and ancient languages into our contemporary curricula.

To change academic institutions and systems is often difficult and met with much backlash.  In 2012 while attending the University of Wisconsin- Eau Claire there was controversy over what language courses that were being offered.  Languages such as Greek and Latin courses were offered year after year even though enrollment in these courses only produced five or six student a semester.  The major issue arose when Hmong language courses were only offered biannually even though they enrolled and overflowed around thirty students.  There were always waiting lists to be enrolled in Hmong language courses and this upset many students who needed to fulfill language requirement or students who wanted to learn about their language, culture, and history.  Note that culture and history are also bundled into Hmong language courses because at this time the institution did not see value in offering separate history and culture courses.  I was involved in student movements which became quite powerful because after petitioning, writing letters to administrators, and meeting countless times with those in charge of the curriculum at UW-Eau Claire we were granted funds for a Hmong Studies Initiative.  These funds would only last for a couple of years as a test trial however.  

Why should there even be a Hmong studies or ethnic studies in institutions of higher education today?  That is the question that was often posed to students and faculty that supported this movement.  The answer was always right in front of the university because the largest ethnic minority group on the UW-Eau Claire campus was Hmong students.  Instead of seeing Hmong culture as a growing and thriving community in the Midwest it would seem that administrators viewed Hmong culture as indigenous and dying off.  There was no value in investing money for a Hmong program if Hmong culture and epistemologies are going be to be lost in the future.  This is where many students drew the line because the University offered ancient languages that had little use in today’s society and offered courses shaped for White students but when asked to support an initiative for Hmong students (the majority minority group) on campus for the past twenty years, the university turned its back.  Note that this was an ongoing struggle since I arrived at UW- Eau Claire in the Fall of 2009.  Today I am a alumni of UW-Eau Claire but I still have high hopes and expectations for that university because it is bringing in more Hmong students than ever and I do not want these students to be cheating out of their language, culture, history, epistemology, and understanding of the world. 

We see that curriculum is often shaped by those in power which from the very start has been White men.  Even today when we observe structures in society we see that the majority of CEOs, company owners, administrators, and people in charge are still very White and very male.  The attempts to diversify institutions of higher education have been attempted since the Colonial period with the example of Native Americans (Thelin, 2011, Pg. 30).  Is the purpose to benefit White society or is it to help propel students of color?  Students of color are not valued like their White peers because they are tokenized, used for research, and in the sense of boarding schools they are being ‘assimilated’ which we can just call whitenized.

We can learn something from the Antebellum period in America because instead of focusing on the wants and needs of a prestigious city and university, there needs to remain a focus on students (Church & Sedlak).  Students should always remain the priority of colleges and universities and even if they are not White students, universities should work on changing to support their student body.  As future student affairs professionals it is important to understand the structure, governance, and history of higher education.  Only then can you better serve your students because today students come from many different identities and we need to see value in different cultures, histories, and epistemologies.  What can we take away from the history of how curriculums have been shaped and valued?  We can avoid the mistakes that UW-Eau Claire made and support students who are in need of certain courses.  Change in higher education is difficult and hard to come by but as future student affairs professionals it is our responsibility to be able to work with student’s needs and societal changes.       

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A new chapter in my life is starting #gradschool #uwlax #reslifeteam #gettingfancywiththenametagandbusinesscards #feelinggood

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Finally got my piece-- #uwec #graduation #degree

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I am thankful for many things in my life but I can never thank these two people enough. They've been the roof over my head, the arms that rocked me to bed, my biggest fans, my favorite teachers, my motivation, and most importantly my parents. Thanks mom and dad, I will always keep fighting on for the both of you.

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always talking about #thestruggles and the struggles became real #hopeitaintthatbad #prayforwolverinehealingpowers #acjoint

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one step closer to graduating #thissomeexpensiveshiet #graduation #capandgown #tassel #classof2014 #uwec

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#awesome picture I found on my professor's door- #senseofhumor #funnybutsadbuttrue #realtalk

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sums up what I'll be doing during #Springbreak #capstone #books #reading #writing #nolife

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The only picture I got on my phone from #culturecore overall it was an amazing experience and very powerful for me-- it was an honor to have such an amazing artist, educator, and person at our conference this year, thank you Seexeng #hmong #uwec #artist

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