The Cromlech of Stonehenge
The Stonehenge Cromlech, an ancient marvel towering majestically in the British countryside, represents the most famous and imposing stone circle, known as a cromlech. This extraordinary monument is composed of a circle of colossal megaliths, imposing upright stones that support horizontal connecting lintels, some of which rise impressively in height. Stonehenge is an ancient and fascinating example of a trilithic system, a structure built with three main elements: two vertical uprights and a horizontal lintel.
While the impressive stones of Stonehenge underwent modifications during reconstruction work in the first half of the 20th century, they still maintain an alignment that some believe faithfully reproduces the original one. This precision has led to speculation about Stonehenge's possible role as an ancient astronomical observatory, particularly relevant during solstices and equinoxes. However, the interpretation of its use for this purpose remains a subject of debate.
In addition to attracting tourists from around the world, Stonehenge holds deep significance for followers of Celtic traditions, Wicca, and other neopagan religions. Throughout its history, Stonehenge has also played a significant role as the site of a free music festival held from 1972 to 1984.
However, 1985 marked the end of this festival as the British government banned it following a violent clash between the police and some participants, an incident known as the Battle of Beanfield. Stonehenge, with its rich and varied history, continues to be a source of mystery, fascination, and spirituality for those who visit.
Detailed Description of Stonehenge:
At the center of Stonehenge stands the imposing block of green sandstone known as the Altar Stone. This majestic monolith reaches a height of five meters and captivates with its imposing presence. The stone is carved from an extremely hard variety of siliceous sandstone, naturally sourced from about thirty kilometers to the north on the Marlborough Downs. Its geographical origin adds an element of mystery, highlighting the logistical complexity of ancient builders.
Inner Structure – Bluestone Horseshoe:
Within the main circle is the complex structure known as the Bluestone Horseshoe. This formation consists of much smaller stones, each with an average weight of four tons. Surprisingly, these stones traveled a long distance to reach Stonehenge, originating from the Preseli Mountains in southwestern Wales. The variety of stones, including dolerite, rhyolite, sandstone, and volcanic limestone ashes, adds a unique dimension to the geological complexity of Stonehenge.
Once known as the Friar's Heel, this stone tells a captivating story related to its origins. According to a popular tale dating back at least to the 17th century, the devil himself purchased these stones from a woman in Ireland, wrapped them, and transported them to the Salisbury Plain. While one of the stones fell into the River Avon, the others were strategically placed on the plain. The devil, confident in his cunning, exclaimed, "No one will ever find out how these stones got here." However, a wise friar retorted, "That's what you think!" In response, the devil hurled one of the stones at the friar, striking him in the heel. The stone embedded in the ground, where it remains anchored to this day, a silent witness to an ancient showdown between good and evil.
Historical Mentions and Scientific Investigations of Stonehenge:
The historical roots of Stonehenge extend into the mists of time, capturing the interest of ancient writers and modern scholars. In the 1st century BCE, the Greek writer Diodorus Siculus mentioned a place similar to Stonehenge in his Bibliotheca Historica, referring to an island called Hyperborea, beyond the Celts, dedicated to Apollo. Some scholars in the past have speculated that Hyperborea could indicate Britain, and the spherical temple mentioned by Diodorus could be an early reference to Stonehenge.
However, archaeologist Aubrey Burl has cast doubts on this theory, as some parts of Diodorus's description do not seem to fully reconcile with Stonehenge and its surrounding geography. Burl particularly highlighted the mention of Apollo "touching the earth at a very low height," a phenomenon incompatible with the latitude of Stonehenge.
The earliest detailed investigations into Stonehenge date back to 1640 when John Aubrey proclaimed the monument the work of Druids, an idea later amplified by William Stukeley. Aubrey, a pioneer in site analysis, created the first detailed drawings, laying the groundwork for a better understanding of its form and significance. From 1740 onwards, architect John Wood conducted further research, interpreting Stonehenge as a site for pagan rituals. This interpretation, criticized by Stukeley, reflected the beliefs of the time about the nature of the monument.
Isaac Newton, influenced by Stukeley, undertook a symbolic analysis of Stonehenge's stones in the context of the non-geocentric configuration of the solar system. This perspective, derived from his conception of a perfect model based on the Temple of Jerusalem, suggested that the builders of Stonehenge possessed ancient scientific knowledge.
Radiocarbon dating has revealed that Stonehenge underwent construction phases between 3100 BCE and 1600 BCE, with the circular earthen mound and ditch built in 3100 BCE. The visible stones today mainly belong to the Stonehenge 3 phase (2600 BCE – 1600 BCE). Recent research, such as the 2020 XRF spectrophotometry, has provided new data, indicating a dating of 2500 BCE.
Theories about the construction of Stonehenge, once tied to the Druids, have been challenged considering the late spread of Celtic society. Moreover, the practice of Druid rituals in forests suggests that Stonehenge might not have been the ideal place for their "earth rituals." Ongoing scientific research is gradually unraveling the mysteries of this monument, shedding new light on its past and true nature.
Controversies and Discoveries:
Restorations and Disputes:
Since the early 19th century, a series of modifications and restorations have shaped Stonehenge's current appearance. Victorian engineers, with zeal and preservation intentions, positioned many of the fallen stones in their current locations. Recent research indicates that these restoration works continued into the 1970s, introducing substantial changes to the original arrangement. Archaeologists from English Heritage acknowledge that, without these interventions, Stonehenge would look significantly different today. Very few stones still retain their original positions, erected millennia ago.
Discoveries in the Vicinity:
Just 3 km from Stonehenge, researchers from the National Geographic Society discovered a village dating back to 2600 BCE. This settlement, consisting of approximately twenty-five small dwellings, is presumed to have accommodated builders of the complex or participants in specific ceremonies. This discovery provides a broader insight into the life and social organization of ancient times, connecting Stonehenge's history to a wider context.
Prehistoric Astronomical Observatory:
Stonehenge's function as a prehistoric astronomical observatory is a subject of debate. The monument's axis is oriented towards sunrise during summer solstices, suggesting a connection with astronomy. However, this orientation does not occur during winter solstices, fueling mystery and conflicting interpretations about its real utility. The complexity of Stonehenge continues to intrigue scholars and enthusiasts, and its alleged astral function adds a layer of mystery to its history.
Denial of Roman Theories:
Contrary to the theories of Inigo Jones and others, suggesting that Stonehenge could have been built as a Roman temple, the historical fact that the Romans first arrived on the British Isles with the arrival of Julius Caesar in 55 BCE negates these hypotheses. Stonehenge, with its intricate history and connection to distant eras, continues to challenge and fascinate those seeking to unravel its secrets hidden over millennia.
Theories about Construction:
Extraction and Transport of Large Stones:
The majestic stones of Stonehenge, some of which weigh an impressive 25/50 tons and are made of gneiss, were extracted from a hill located 30 km from the archaeological site. The process of transporting these massive stones involved the use of sledges sliding on wooden rollers, pulled by dozens of men through likely collective efforts. This titanic operation represents an extraordinary expression of engineering capabilities of the time.
Origin of Smaller Stones:
The smaller stones, an integral part of Stonehenge, were extracted from various locations, expanding the logistical complexity of the project. A site just 3 km away contributed some of these stones, while others were extracted from more distant sites, including a location in Wales over 200 km away. The variety of sources underscores the geographic scope of the efforts made for the construction of Stonehenge.
New Research and Rejection of Previous Theories:
A study published in June 2018 challenged the previous theories of geologist Herbert Henry Thomas from 1923, which had influenced the scientific community regarding specific extraction sites and stone transport methods. The new research suggests that the Bristol Channel was not used as previously supposed, but that the stones might have been transported through internal roads. Additionally, it is hypothesized that the Altar Stone could come from Senni Beds, a sandstone formation extending through Wales to Herefordshire in eastern Wales. This conceptual shift sheds new light on the intricate logistics of Stonehenge.
Erection and Construction Process:
The raising of the vertical stones involved a complex process. Initially, the stones were dragged to a hole in the ground, then slid into the hole using a lever system resting against a "castle" of logs. Once in the upright position, the stones were secured using ropes, and the hole was filled with stones. The assembly of the lintel occurred gradually, using wooden scaffolding and levers, highlighting the technical mastery of Stonehenge's prehistoric builders.
Legends and Myths Surrounding Stonehenge:
Association with King Arthur:
Stonehenge is shrouded in the legend of King Arthur, where the wizard Merlin would have requested the removal of the monument from Ireland, originally built on Mount Killaraus by giants who transported the stones from Africa. After being rebuilt near Amesbury, the legend states that Uther Pendragon and later Constantine III were buried inside the stone circle. This mythical connection adds an epic charm to Stonehenge's story, intertwining the ancient monument with the legends of one of Britain's most famous rulers.
Similar Neolithic Circles:
Stonehenge is not the only prominent Neolithic circle, and several similar structures date approximately to the same era. Among these, the "Ring of Brodgar" in northern Scotland offers another example of Neolithic complexity. Additionally, a similar circle, dating to around 4900 BCE, is found in Goseck, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. These structures suggest the presence of ancient communities sharing ideas and construction practices.
Calendar Circle at Nabta Playa:
A complex known as the "Calendar Circle," originally built at Nabta Playa and now displayed at the Nubian Museum in Aswan, predates Stonehenge by at least a thousand years. This ancient structure, with its astronomical implications, highlights the diversity and spread of construction practices in ancient times.
Megalithic Circles in Italy:
In Italy, several examples of megalithic circles are found in Sardinia, adding a touch of mystery and global connection. The "Circle of Li Muri" in Arzachena and the "Circle of Pranu Muttedu" in Goni are examples of ancient megalithic achievements that emphasize the presence of common practices in different regions of the ancient world. These testimonies speak of a past rich in symbolism and meaning, where communities expressed their connection with the divine through majestic stone constructions.
