#ashley rackl

[envirolit]

Davidson, the Other, and Humanity

Ashley Rackl

Dr. Lance Newman

English 357

3 December 2012

Davidson, the Other, and Humanity

            “The normal adult reaction to a very much smaller person may be arrogant, or protective, or patronizing, or affectionate, or bullying, but whatever it is it’s liable to be better fitted to a child and to an adult. Then, when the child-sized person was furry, a further response got called upon which Lyubov had labeled the Teddy Bear reaction. ..And finally there was the inevitable Freak Reaction, the flinching away from what is human but does not look quite so.” –Lyubov, Ursula K. Le Guin, The Word for World is Forest (Le Guin 114)

              Ursula K. Le Guin gives us a strong picture of Captain Davidson’s thoughts and prejudices clearly in the first chapter of her groundbreaking Sci-Fi novel The Word for World is Forest. His attitudes set the tone for the book and his rape of Selver’s wife, Thele, drives the plot and the succession of violence throughout the story. On Athshe, violence originates in New Tahiti when the humans enslave the native Athsheans and force them to cut down their forests. We can see clearly, through Davidson’s eyes, that the Athsheans are the ultimate Other.

Because Davidson and the other humans do not understand the native inhabitants, the Athsheans are imprisoned, mischaracterized, and exploited.  The ignorant attitudes that Davidson perpetuates allows slavery and abuse to occur unchecked while also creating an environment that harbors violence. Once the killing starts, it spins out of control and cannot be stopped.

            “They’re going to get rubbed out sooner or later, and it might as well be sooner… Primitive races always have to give way to civilized ones. Or be assimilated. But we sure as hell can’t assimilate a lot of green monkeys.” –Captain Davidson, Ursula K. Le Guin, The Word for World is Forest (Le Guin 21)

              The Other is a societal outcast who does not share characteristics with the dominant group and fails to conform to societal norms. Because of this perceived difference, the Other is often regarded as “less intelligent or as immoral, and may even be regarded as sub-human” (CUNY par 1).  In the first chapter, we enter Davidson’s mind and are privy to his thoughts and feelings about this new world, Athshe, and its enslaved inhabitants. Captain Davidson believes the “creechies” are not human and uses this analogy to justify his maltreatment of them. According to Davidson the Athsheans are, “tough; they’ve got terrific endurance; and they don’t feel pain like humans. You think hitting one is like hitting a kid, sort of. Believe me, it’s more like hitting a robot for all they feel it… you know they don’t feel anything, no pleasure, no pain” (Le Guin 19).  

            Davidson is able to treat the Athsheans like objects simply because they have taken on the role of the Other. They do not look or behave like Terran humans, they live in the forest and they do use the same language Captain Davidson does. To him, the Athsheans are green, furry, catatonic, and lazy animals that should be forced into usefulness. He doesn’t recognize that they have a complex matriarchal government, speak a complex language, and maintain a dream-centered culture in which they partially communicate through touch. The Athsheans are intelligent and advanced, but Davidson views them only as alien creatures deserving no rights who should be made to work for the humans.

            “Right but this isn’t slavery, Ok baby. Slaves are humans. When you raise cows, you call that slavery? No. And it works.”  -Captain Davidson, Ursula K.  Le Guin, The Word for World is Forest (Le Guin 18)

            One way to think of the Other and the ideologies that allow us to propel fellow humans into this category is to put them into what University of Texas, El Paso philosophy professor Steven Best calls “a moral basement” (Best par 13). At the bottom of our moral and ethical hierarchy lay the animals; they are the lowliest and most frequently brutalized group within Western society. Best writes that animals function as a foundation for all oppression because, “animals - defined as ‘brute beasts’ lacking ‘rationality’ - thereby provided the moral basement into which one could eject women, people of color, and other humans deemed to be subhuman or deficient in (Western male) ‘humanity’" (Best par 13). When we want to put the Other into a moral basement all we must do is compare that person to an animal.

            Or better yet for the abuser, the Other is made to believably become that animal.  Captain Davidson does this in his rhetoric regarding “creechies”. The term “creechie” is animalistic and demeaning; it strips the Athsheans of their humanity.  Not only does Davidson deny that the Athsheans can feel pain, he also compares them to animals and essentially puts the native people into a moral basement.  Davidson explains, “These things weren’t even that highly developed, they were just like snakes or rats, just smart enough to turn around and bite you as soon as you let them out of the cage” (Le Guin 94) . By making the “creechies” subhuman, the Terran Humans can feel ethically allowed to control and dominate them as they please.

                “Their dreams were uneasy and full of blood and fire; they were surrounded all day by strangers, people come from all over the forests, hundreds of them, thousands, all gathered here like kites to carrion…it seemed to them as if the end of things had come and nothing would ever be the same, or be right, again.” –The Athsheans, Ursula K. Le Guin, The Word for World is Forest (Le Guin 137-138)

              Violence creates violence. Captain Davidson’s rape of Thele leads to the massacre at Smith Camp and the killing of about two hundred men. The Smith Camp murders lead to Davidson’s further retaliation and slaughter of an Athshean village. Davidson firmly believes in an eye for an eye mentality and wants the “creechies” to suffer for killing his men. Again, to Davidson, this is acceptable because they are the Other; subhuman, animalistic and unfeeling. He believes the Athsheans should have never dared to defy their human captors and because they did, they will burn. Davidson embodies the traditional Western male mentality that might makes right and the stronger should subdue the weak. Davidson is masculine and “a big, hard muscled man” (Le Guin 11) who believes that anyone who is not like him is “effeminate like a lot of intellectuals” (Le Guin 24). He was sent to dominate and weaken the Other, as well as to conquer and destroy the land for profit, which is a story that has been repeated throughout the history of Western Colonization; Davidson only serves as its poster boy.

            Selver, however, only wants to preserve his people and his forest from harm. He kills because he knows that there is no way to reason with humans; they only respond to violence. Selver describes the human propensity for killing which Captain Davidson embodies when he asks, “Do men kill men, except in madness? Does any beast kill its own kind? Only the insects. These yumens kill as lightly as we kill snakes. The one who taught me said they kill own another in quarrels, and also in groups, like ants fighting” (Le Guin 44). Killing, to the Athsheans, is not a normal part of life and has nothing to do with being masculine. To Davidson, on the other hand, murder is an essential piece of male virility. He explains that, “the fact is, the only time a man is really and entirely a man is when he’s just had a woman or just killed another man” (Le Guin 96). The Athshean’s culture was devoid of warfare until they met Terran humans and adapted their customs to match it. We know from Lyubov’s research that Athsheans did not kill each other naturally and that murder is not a part of their society until Terran humans arrived.

            “‘There has been no more killing, then?’

                ‘None. They will tell you,’ Selver said, nodding toward the Colonel and Gosse.

                ‘Among your own people, I mean The Athsheans killing Athsheans.’

                Selver was silent.” –Ursula K. Le Guin, The Word for World is Forest (Le Guin 188)

              Davidson’s men and their Western ideologies infiltrated and destroyed Athshean culture from the inside out by introducing them to warfare and blind violence. Selver, as their leader, introduced murder to his people and is called a God. Lyubov discovered that the Athshean word for God is the same as the word for translator and explains, “And the translator is the God. Selver had brought a new word into the language of his people. He had done a new deed. The word, the deed, murder. Only a God could lead so great a newcomer as Death across the bridge between worlds.” (Le Guin 124) After the Athsheans destroy Central, the killing cannot be stopped. Davidson has introduced brutality and murder to the Athsheans and now they cannot help but kill each other. Selver learns that violence cannot be ended suddenly and that it only perpetuates itself. He is a God because he has changed the course of history but he is not omniscient and could not have known that the Athsheans would be transformed forever by his leadership.

            “We have killed, raped, dispersed, and enslaved the native humans, destroyed their communities, and cut down their forests. It wouldn’t be surprising if they decided that we are not human.” –Lyubov, Ursula K. Le Guin, The Word for World is Forest (Le Guin 75)

              The humans came to Athshe to conquer it, cut down the trees for profit and assimilate the natives.  While the Athsheans did not necessarily conform to Davidson’s ideals, they did implement war and killing. If murder is what makes us human, then it is clear that the Athsheans did fully assimilate. They became one of many tribes of humans throughout the universe that frequently kill each other. Although the forest has been preserved, Athshean culture has not. Selver has changed it permanently by assimilating his values to match Davidson’s. He murders because Davidson taught him how to kill and hate.

            The Athshean’s delicate society was doomed from the moment the humans arrived. They could conform to slavery or retaliate and fight for their physical freedom. Captain Davidson and his men could not be reasoned with and brute force had to be used against them. In this manner, Athshean culture ended the moment its people became slaves. In defeating the Terran humans, the Athshean’s lost their own humanity. This narrative’s theme of peaceful societies becoming violent seems to represent the duality of human kind. We ask for peace and say that to be peaceful is to be truly human, yet we cannot seem to exist in a world without violence (at least on a large societal scale).  The paradox of simultaneously desiring peace while committing and condoning murder (be it through warfare, the death penalty, denial of basic needs to others, etc.) makes us more animalistic than we’d like to think.

                              Works Cited

Best, Steven, Ph.D. "The Rise of Critical Animal Studies." The Rise of Critical Animal Studies.        State of Nature: An Online Journal of Radical Ideas, 2007. Web. 04 Dec. 2012.             <http://www.stateofnature.org/theRiseOfCriticalAnimal.html>.

Le Guin, Ursula K. The Word for World Is Forest. New York: Tom Doherty Associates, LLC, 1972. Print.

"The Other." The Other. City University of New York/English Dept, 4 Feb. 2009. Web. 4 Dec.        2012. <http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/other.html>.

[envirolit]

Where do we go from here?

Hello everyone, it's been great semester. We've had some enlightening discussions about the future of our planet and its ecology. Our current unit, or course, is titled "Where do I/We go now?" and deals with our treatment of the environment and what it means for our future. What can we do to help conserve our earth's vital resources right now?

One powerful choice we can make is to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet. Meat production wastes natural resources and is a major cause of world water depletion. 70% of our planet’s grain supply is used to feed animals raised for human consumption (and sadly not to aid starving people). Generally it takes about 13 lbs of grain to produce just one pound of beef and about 2,400 gallons of water. Vegan diets require significantly less water and energy to maintain (for example a pound of grain takes only 25 gallons of water to produce). Vegetarian and especially vegan diets are becoming increasingly mainstream and are easy to maintain (vegan ice cream is wonderful). Additionally, vegan diets do not promote cruelty to animals and can make you healthier by reducing your waistline and lowering risks for diseases like heart disease and certain cancers. It’s a simple choice that will help animals and the environment each time you eat. Your diet will make an impact over time.

The United Nations and the Stockholm International Water Institute are asking everyone on Earth to reduce meat consumption and adopt a vegetarian/vegan diet because we are literally running out of water. A global shift towards vegetarianism can combat climate change and conserve precious grain and water resources as our planet’s human population rises to 9 billion over the next 40 years. In “The Word for World is Forest” Ursula Le Guin urges us to heed voices of reason rather than tossing the truth aside. Will we arrogantly ignore the expert scientists on this topic and continue our destructive diets?

I've attached two links to articles that explain this crisis below. Both are from The Guardian and are titled, "Food shortages could force world into vegetarianism, warn scientists" and "UN urges global move to meat and dairy free diet".

http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2012/aug/26/food-shortages-world-vegetarianism

http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet

[envirolit]

What are we missing?

“This was not a loss I knew as a child. Longleaf was a word I never heard. But it is a loss that as an adult shadows every step I take.” –Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood (15)

Interestingly, the effects of ecological devastation aren’t as obvious and noticeable in the Intermountain region of the United States as they are in more densely populated parts of the country. The devastation is all around us, however, it hides well. The plant and animal life of the region has been astonishingly altered by humans. Most residents do not know or realize that there is a profound difference between the landscape of today and that our great-great-grandparents.

            Unlike the highly developed coastal regions, the center of this nation is full of open spaces and wild country. In Utah and our neighboring states, outdoor recreation is a common pastime. Because of this proximity to abundant natural beauty, it becomes easy to assume that the region has been untouched (or at least less-touched) by humans. However, much has been lost in Utah. I can identify with Ray’s struggle to preserve and restore her heritage landscape. Like Ray, I am a native to this place. My mother’s family has been in this region for at least five generations. Some of my ancestors were Mormon pioneers, the early white settlers here. Like Ray, I can’t help but care about this place. It’s my home and my inheritance.

            In his book Our Renewable Wildlands, author and ecologist Walter Cottam explores the vast difference between Utah’s historical and present ecology. In 1961 Cottam wrote that “a common impression of this generation is that the Mormon pioneers settled in a sagebrush valley (Cottam 10)”. Many Utahns do not realize is that Salt Lake Valley was once full of lush grassland. He explains that “the journals of early explorers and pioneers contain numerous references to the vegetation of Utah before the time of settlement” (Cottam 9). As an ecologist, Cottam was in involved in a number of field studies and from these he determined that “tremendous changes even in the plant types have occurred during the past century, particularly throughout…our valleys” (Cottam 9). The valleys, where most of the pioneers settled, have been altered drastically by destructive, developmental force.

            Unfortunately, overgrazing has turned this once lush valley into a harsh sagebrush ruled frontier. In 1776, early explorer Father Escalante described the valley as covered with the “green grass of the plains”, “upland bunch grass”, and wetland “marsh vegetation” (Cottam 9-10). In Ecology of a Cracker Childhood, Ray observes that if her ancestors gave “any thought to the environmental destruction wreaked by the introduction of armies of foreign beasts, it went unrecorded…died, forgotten or never said” (Ray 86). This also seems to be true of the Mormon pioneers attitude regarding the land here although Cottam notes that Brigham Young spoke “almost pathetically of the destruction of the willows and wild roses growing thickly on the two branches of City Creek” (Cottam 11). City Creek itself he notes was also destroyed to divert water for crops. Expending natural water resources in the valley produced a rugged landscape very quickly. Cottam notes that “within thirteen years” of the pioneer’s arrival “most of the important towns from Logan on the north to Saint George on the south had been founded” (Cottam 4). The grasslands were ruined shortly after.

                        “Most important about the longleaf pine settlers was their attitude toward nature, although this can only be inferred.” Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood (85)

              Like the ignorant settlers that Ray describes, Cottam also explains that the “basic facts of ecology where not understood by the pioneer settlers” (Cottam 21). The grass lands were grazed to the point of exhaustion and floods eroded top layers of soil preventing grass from taking root in the valleys again. What was once covered in plains grass is now “dominated by sagebrush, rabbitbrush, and shadescale” (Cottam 9). In Ecology, Ray bitterly remarks that “they (her ancestors) had no thoughts of a future” (Ray 86). The Mormon pioneers did not seem to have any concern for a sustainable ecological future either. Like many Europeans, it seems that they thought nothing of the environment, save what good it could do for them.

            In addition to flora, animal life has been drastically altered in this region as well. Most prominently, Utah’s white settlers eradicated the region’s two largest predators and their largest prey. The last Grizzly Bear in Utah, known as Old Ephraim, was shot and killed in 1923 because he had been feeding on livestock (Ferry 5). The last wolves known to Utah disappeared around 1930 (“Wolf Restoration”). Each of these important species became a casualty to development. Humans seem to hate natural competition and will destroy any species that threatens our presumed dominance. The irony is that wolves and bears had resorted to feeding on cows and sheep because their primary food source had disappeared in the west directly because of the arrogance and greed in over hunting.

            Traditionally, wolves had hunted bison here and bears would scavenge the remains (occasionally killing young or sick animals themselves). But the buffalo had been disappearing steadily in the United States as settlers encroached more and more on their lands. Viewed as an expendable commodity, bison where slaughtered by the thousands and were already gone from Utah in the 1880s (Schindler). This void left cows the freedom to roam and to graze smaller patches of grassland too heavily. Ray implies that with a human development comes destruction. She writes, “railroads were to pines what they were to buffalo: the means to extinction” (Ray 99).

The unhappy truth is that this type of human caused environmental destruction has been repeating itself since the dawn of our development. In the past several hundred years especially, civilization has replaced our natural role in the ecosystems of our planet. Instead of being immersed in the rhythms of nature, we are absorbed by manmade society. Most of us have forgotten or never learned how to survive in the wild. The rise of industrialization and technology has created a cancer on this planet, slowly poisoning all life upon it. Scientists now believe that we are entering the sixth major extinction on Earth and the only extinction caused by a single species: us. So where do we go from here?

              “Sometimes there is no leaving, no looking westward for another promised land. We have to nail our shoes to the kitchen floor and unload the burden of our heart. We have to set to the task of repairing the damage done by us and to us.” Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood (103)

  The Mormon pioneers had too sought a promised land and settled in the Salt Lake Valley because of its rich grasses, mountain streams, and proximity to building timber. Over time the city rose and the suburbs sprawled. Human life in the Salt Lake Valley grew exponentially as did devastating environmental damage. We cannot change what happened in the past but we can dictate the face of our future. What we do starts today. I don’t profess to have the answers but I do know that escaping the dark shrouds of ignorance and the blindness of history is the first step toward recovery.  We can remedy the damage of the past.

               “It might take a lifetime, one spent undoing.” Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood, 268

                            Works Cited

Cottam, Walter P. Our Renewable Wild Lands; a Challenge. Salt Lake City: Univ. of Utah, 1961. Print.

Ferry, Ryan. Learn to Be Bear Safe. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, 2007. Print.

Ray, Janisse. Ecology of a Cracker Childhood. Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 1999. Print.

Schindler, Hal. "Antelope Island is Bison Home on Range." Utah History to Go. Salt Lake Tribune, 11 Nov.             1993. Web. 17 Oct. 2012.

            <http://historytogo.utah.gov/salt_lake_tribune/in_another_time/111493.html>.

"Wolf Restoration Campaign." Utah Environmental Congress. Utah Environmental Congress, 2009. Web.

            15 Oct. 2012.

            <http://www.uec-utah.org/subpage/Wolf%20Restoration%20Campaign.aspx?pid=4&chid=22>.

[arackl-blog]

What are we missing?

“This was not a loss I knew as a child. Longleaf was a word I never heard. But it is a loss that as an adult shadows every step I take.” –Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood (15)

Interestingly, the effects of ecological devastation aren’t as obvious and noticeable in the Intermountain region of the United States as they are in more densely populated parts of the country. The devastation is all around us, however, it hides well. The plant and animal life of the region has been astonishingly altered by humans. Most residents do not know or realize that there is a profound difference between the landscape of today and that our great-great-grandparents.

            Unlike the highly developed coastal regions, the center of this nation is full of open spaces and wild country. In Utah and our neighboring states, outdoor recreation is a common pastime. Because of this proximity to abundant natural beauty, it becomes easy to assume that the region has been untouched (or at least less-touched) by humans. However, much has been lost in Utah. I can identify with Ray’s struggle to preserve and restore her heritage landscape. Like Ray, I am a native to this place. My mother’s family has been in this region for at least five generations. Some of my ancestors were Mormon pioneers, the early white settlers here. Like Ray, I can’t help but care about this place. It’s my home and my inheritance.

            In his book Our Renewable Wildlands, author and ecologist Walter Cottam explores the vast difference between Utah’s historical and present ecology. In 1961 Cottam wrote that “a common impression of this generation is that the Mormon pioneers settled in a sagebrush valley (Cottam 10)”. Many Utahns do not realize is that Salt Lake Valley was once full of lush grassland. He explains that “the journals of early explorers and pioneers contain numerous references to the vegetation of Utah before the time of settlement” (Cottam 9). As an ecologist, Cottam was in involved in a number of field studies and from these he determined that “tremendous changes even in the plant types have occurred during the past century, particularly throughout…our valleys” (Cottam 9). The valleys, where most of the pioneers settled, have been altered drastically by destructive, developmental force.

            Unfortunately, overgrazing has turned this once lush valley into a harsh sagebrush ruled frontier. In 1776, early explorer Father Escalante described the valley as covered with the “green grass of the plains”, “upland bunch grass”, and wetland “marsh vegetation” (Cottam 9-10). In Ecology of a Cracker Childhood, Ray observes that if her ancestors gave “any thought to the environmental destruction wreaked by the introduction of armies of foreign beasts, it went unrecorded…died, forgotten or never said” (Ray 86). This also seems to be true of the Mormon pioneers attitude regarding the land here although Cottam notes that Brigham Young spoke “almost pathetically of the destruction of the willows and wild roses growing thickly on the two branches of City Creek” (Cottam 11). City Creek itself he notes was also destroyed to divert water for crops. Expending natural water resources in the valley produced a rugged landscape very quickly. Cottam notes that “within thirteen years” of the pioneer’s arrival “most of the important towns from Logan on the north to Saint George on the south had been founded” (Cottam 4). The grasslands were ruined shortly after.

                        “Most important about the longleaf pine settlers was their attitude toward nature, although this can only be inferred.” Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood (85)

              Like the ignorant settlers that Ray describes, Cottam also explains that the “basic facts of ecology where not understood by the pioneer settlers” (Cottam 21). The grass lands were grazed to the point of exhaustion and floods eroded top layers of soil preventing grass from taking root in the valleys again. What was once covered in plains grass is now “dominated by sagebrush, rabbitbrush, and shadescale” (Cottam 9). In Ecology, Ray bitterly remarks that “they (her ancestors) had no thoughts of a future” (Ray 86). The Mormon pioneers did not seem to have any concern for a sustainable ecological future either. Like many Europeans, it seems that they thought nothing of the environment, save what good it could do for them.

            In addition to flora, animal life has been drastically altered in this region as well. Most prominently, Utah’s white settlers eradicated the region’s two largest predators and their largest prey. The last Grizzly Bear in Utah, known as Old Ephraim, was shot and killed in 1923 because he had been feeding on livestock (Ferry 5). The last wolves known to Utah disappeared around 1930 (“Wolf Restoration”). Each of these important species became a casualty to development. Humans seem to hate natural competition and will destroy any species that threatens our presumed dominance. The irony is that wolves and bears had resorted to feeding on cows and sheep because their primary food source had disappeared in the west directly because of the arrogance and greed in over hunting.

            Traditionally, wolves had hunted bison here and bears would scavenge the remains (occasionally killing young or sick animals themselves). But the buffalo had been disappearing steadily in the United States as settlers encroached more and more on their lands. Viewed as an expendable commodity, bison where slaughtered by the thousands and were already gone from Utah in the 1880s (Schindler). This void left cows the freedom to roam and to graze smaller patches of grassland too heavily. Ray implies that with a human development comes destruction. She writes, “railroads were to pines what they were to buffalo: the means to extinction” (Ray 99).

The unhappy truth is that this type of human caused environmental destruction has been repeating itself since the dawn of our development. In the past several hundred years especially, civilization has replaced our natural role in the ecosystems of our planet. Instead of being immersed in the rhythms of nature, we are absorbed by manmade society. Most of us have forgotten or never learned how to survive in the wild. The rise of industrialization and technology has created a cancer on this planet, slowly poisoning all life upon it. Scientists now believe that we are entering the sixth major extinction on Earth and the only extinction caused by a single species: us. So where do we go from here?

              “Sometimes there is no leaving, no looking westward for another promised land. We have to nail our shoes to the kitchen floor and unload the burden of our heart. We have to set to the task of repairing the damage done by us and to us.” Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood (103)

  The Mormon pioneers had too sought a promised land and settled in the Salt Lake Valley because of its rich grasses, mountain streams, and proximity to building timber. Over time the city rose and the suburbs sprawled. Human life in the Salt Lake Valley grew exponentially as did devastating environmental damage. We cannot change what happened in the past but we can dictate the face of our future. What we do starts today. I don’t profess to have the answers but I do know that escaping the dark shrouds of ignorance and the blindness of history is the first step toward recovery.  We can remedy the damage of the past.

               “It might take a lifetime, one spent undoing.” Janisse Ray, Ecology of a Cracker Childhood, 268

                            Works Cited

Cottam, Walter P. Our Renewable Wild Lands; a Challenge. Salt Lake City: Univ. of Utah, 1961. Print.

Ferry, Ryan. Learn to Be Bear Safe. Salt Lake City: Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, 2007. Print.

Ray, Janisse. Ecology of a Cracker Childhood. Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 1999. Print.

Schindler, Hal. "Antelope Island is Bison Home on Range." Utah History to Go. Salt Lake Tribune, 11 Nov.             1993. Web. 17 Oct. 2012.

            <http://historytogo.utah.gov/salt_lake_tribune/in_another_time/111493.html>.

"Wolf Restoration Campaign." Utah Environmental Congress. Utah Environmental Congress, 2009. Web.

            15 Oct. 2012.

            <http://www.uec-utah.org/subpage/Wolf%20Restoration%20Campaign.aspx?pid=4&chid=22>.