#aslgram

[learningcherryblossoms]

Letter and Number Confusions

Lesson 9: Letter and Number Confusions

At this time, it is also useful to review numbers 0 through 10 because they are frequently used in communication.  the figure  shows the hand shapes for these numbers.  As with the Amanubet, the hand shapes for numbers are also handy in describing many ASL signs.   Numbers beyond 10 and conventions for using numbers in ASL sentences as well as ordinal numbers (first, second...) and fractions are discussed in a later lesson

A brief description of each of the digits follows.  The descriptions assume the use of the right hand; however, the left hand may also be employed as long as that hand is used consistently as the dominant hand for all signing.   Although all digits described and pictured here are made with the palm facing out, digits 1 through 9 are also frequently signed with the palm facing in.   Palm orientation for numerals 1 - 9 is a matter of personal preference.

0     (Zero):  Hold out right O hand, palm facing out and bent elbow at side.  Move hand forward slightly.

1     (One):  Hold out right hand, palm facing out, index finger extended and pointing up, all other fingers folded over palm with bent thumb resting on knuckles, and bent elbow at the side.

2     (Two):  The same hand shape as for 1, except both index and middle fingers are extended and pointed up.

3.     (Three):  The same hand shape as for 1 except middle and index fingers and thumb are extended and are pointed up.

4.    (Four):  The same hand shapes as for 1 except all four fingers are extended and pointed up with thumb resting on palm.

5.     (Five):  Hold out right hand. palm facing out, all fingers and thumb extended and pointing up, and bent elbow at side..

6.     (Six):  Hold out right hand, palm facing out, all fingers extended and pointing up, bent elbow at side, and thumb touching tip of little finger.

7.     (Seven):  Assume the same hand shape as for 6 except thumb touches tip of ring finger.

8.     (Eight):   Assume the same hand shape as for 6 except thumb touches tip of middle finger.

9.     (Nine):  Assume the same hand shape as for 6 except thumb touches tip of index finger.

10     (Ten):  Hold out right A hand shape, palm facing left and bent elbow at side, and shake hand side to side twice from wrist

   Because Amanubet uses only one hand to form 26 unique hand shapes for the 26 English letters, the hand shapes for some letters tend to be very similar.   In addition, the hand shapes for certain digits closely resemble the hand shapes of certain letters.   It is important to practice forming the letter and digit hand shapes accurately as well as to be able to distinguish these hand shapes quickly and accurately while receiving them.   The following may cause confusion while forming and reading numbers and fingerspelled words.

If not careful, A may be mistaken for S and vice versa.   Notice that A is formed by placing the unbent thumb against the side of the index finger as you form a fist.  For S, the bent thumb is placed over the knuckles of the bent fingers.

Make sure that the fingers of B are held together.  If there are spaces between fingers, the hand shape may be mistaken for digit 4.

Note that the fingers are also held together when forming the C letter shape.  If the fingers are separated, it may look like a claw hand shape, causing confusion.

The D resembles closely the hand shape for digit 1.  For D, the palm side of the thumb is placed on the nail of the middle finger.  The palm side of the thumb lies on the knuckles of the bent fingers for 1.

The letter E may be sometimes confused for S.  The tips of the bent fingers touch the thumb for E and, as stated before, the thumb is placed over the bent fingers to form a fist for letter S.

Some people have difficulty keeping the fingers together for F.  A slight separation of fingers for this letter, however, should pose no problem for readers.

Note that the palm orientation is down for Q and forward facing for G.  These two letters have the same hand shape in all other respects.

Make sure that the thumb of I is placed firmly over the knuckles of bent fingers.  A protruding thumb may cause I to look like a Y.

Note that the hand shapes are identical for I and J.  The difference between the two letters lies in the movement required for J.

Notice the position of the thumb between the index and middle fingers for K.   The thumb lies across the knuckles of ring and little fingers for V.

The palm orientation is the principal cue for distinguishing K from P.  Palm is oriented towards the feet for P and is facing out for K.

The location of the thumb distinguishes the M, N, and T.  The thumb is between the little and ring fingers for M, between the ring and middle fingers for N and between the middle and index fingers for T.

The hand shapes are identical for digit zero and letter O as might be expected.   We frequently substitute O for zero in calling out numbers – e.g., "two oh oh one" for "two zero zero one".

The hand shapes are identical for number 2 and letter V.  The communication context should help you know which concept is being expressed.  If someone is telling you his/her phone number, you would obviously interpret this hand shape to mean "2."

Digit 3 is formed with thumb, index, and middle fingers and not with the index, middle and ring fingers lest it might be mistaken for W.

[learningcherryblossoms]

Signed Pidgin English (SPE)

Yeaaa I got behind on my work lmao. 

With adult signers, it is preferable to use American Sign Language (ASL) or SPE. Deaf people generally do not appreciate manual English (Signed English) because (1) it is slow and tedious and (2) it is a distortion of ASL. All of us are attached to our language -- we cherish our mother tongue. Deaf people are no different. They do not appreciate their language distorted by "outsiders" (hearing people) by imposing English grammar on it. However, they realize that all hearing people cannot be expected to learn ASL. Therefore, SPE, which is a blend of English and ASL, has developed as a contact language. In fact, many people refer to use SPE as the "contact language." How to "speak" of SPE?  1.  Use English word order.        I am a student                                       I student

 2.  Mark yes/no questions with raised eyebrows and forward leaning and, optionally, with the sign for "question" at the end.        Do you want to eat?                             You want eat?

 3.  Mark wh-question with a wh-word (what, when, why, who, how, where).        When is our final exam?                       When final exam?

 4.  Indicate plurality with a quantifier (two, many, a few, etc.,) only; do not use suffix –s.        We have two boys                              We have two boy.

 5.  Indicate past tense with a time reference (now, later, etc,); do not use suffix –d.        Yesterday I went to a party.                Yesterday go party.        I lived in Ames a long time ago.           I live Ames long ago.  

 6.  Avoid prepositions “to” and “of” and use other prepositions such as on, in, and for only if they are necessary to convey meaning.        The cost of living is high in this town             Live cost high this town.        I wrote a letter to my mother                       Morning write letter mother.

 7.  Do not use articles “a”, “an”, and “the”        My sister is a lawyer                                  Sister lawyer

 8.  Do not use copulas (linking verbs – is, are, was, were, am, be)        Why are you sad                                      Why you sad?

 9.  Do not use comparative and superlative markers; do use more, less, most, better, best, very, and similar signs.        I am taller than you.                                  I more tall than you.        That is the tallest building                          (Point to the building) most tall

10.  Do use agent marker when necessary.        She is a writer.                                         She writer.

11.  Do not use adjectival and adverbial markers        Come here quickly.                                 Come quick.        I am sleepy.                                            I feel sleep.        The sky is cloudy.                                   Sky look cloud.

12.  Do not mark third person singular verbs with –s.        He works at the factory.                         He work factory

13.  Do not use progressive marker -ing        He is eating.                                          He eat. (Context is the only clue; if there is confusion, fingerspell the entire word, in this case, "eating.") 14.  Do not use possessive –s or any contractions that are marked with the apostrophe; do use signs for contracted forms can’t, don’t, and won’t.        My friend’s marriage is tomorrow.            Friend marriage tomorrow.        He’s is here but you can’t see him.           He here but you can’t see him. (Fingerspell "He.")

15.  Do use negation marker as needed.        He is not my brother                               He not my brother  (Fingerspell "He.")

16.  If the third person or an entity (object, animal, plant, etc.) is present within the eyesight of where the conversation is taking place, simply point to the person or the entity instead of using a pronoun such as he, she, it, etc.  However, the person or the entity is not present in the conversation, then fingerspell pronouns (he, she, they, them, it, this, etc., as shown in examples 14 and 15 above).

[learningcherryblossoms]

Lesson ??? American Sign Language

American Sign Language (ASL) is distinct from English.   One way to understand the unique features of ASL is to compare it to a language we already know -- English.  In the examples below, the underlined English words in ASL sentences require a single sign.

Comparing the two.  I can’t get a good screencap so Imma just type it out. 

it goes in this order:

 English 

asl

my comments

Topic-comment structure of sentences

I enjoy listening to country music.

Country music enjoy. ("Country music" is the topic and "enjoy" is the comment).

This is a big house.

This (signed by 1-hand pointing down) house big

I have to buy a car.

Car buy must

Unlike the subject-verb-object word order of English, ASL sentences typically have the topic-comment format. Specify the topic (subject or object of a sentence) and then comment on it.

Need for a verb and a noun

How are you?

how you

I am sorry.

sorry

You are welcome.

welcome

I am really sick ("really" is used to dispel doubt or indicate seriousness of sickness).

True sick I. (True functions like a copula to emphasize the truthfulness of the statement.)

Unlike English, ASL has no requirement that a sentence must contain a verb and a noun. ASL sentences do not use copulas (or state verbs such as are, is, and am) to fill the verb slot in a sentence as English does. Nouns and verbs are often implied.

No articles

WHere is the restroom?

restroom where?

There are no articles (a, an and the) in ASL.

No auxiliary verbs

Do you have any children?

Children have you?

I am writing a letter.

Letter write I

ASL does not use auxiliary (helping) verbs such as do, am, are, etc.

Incorporation (also called agglutination) refers to the enhancement of the meaning either by modifying an existing sign or by adding part of another sign to a sign. In the examples below, help incorporates within itself two pronouns (I and you, she and you, etc.). Number, tense, shape, size, manner of movement, etc. can also be incorporated. Although signing is only half as fast as speaking, the amount of information transmitted per unit time is about the same for both English and ASL. This is possible, in part, because ASL "packs" more meaning into many signs through the process of incorporation.

Many verbs incorporate directionality

I will see you later.

I will help you.

You help me.

You help him.

I help them.

She helps you.

See-you later.

Help. (Sign for help moves from the "helper" towards the recipient[s] of help, taking advantage of the visual-spatial nature of the language.).

Directionality of verbs often substitutes for the subject and object of a sentence in ASL. In the first sentence, the sign for see moves from near the signer’s (subject) eyes towards the conversational partner (object).   Thus the sign "see" incorporates the sign "you."

Incorporation of size and manner

He lives in a very big house.

He live house-big.

I need a large plate.

Need plate-large I.

You walk very fast.

Walk-fast you.

The signs for big and plate are made "expansively." Walk is signed with rapid movements of hands to incorporate fast.

[learningcherryblossoms]

Lesson 37:  DEAF CULTURE

Thus there are two different kinds of deaf people in this world.  The deaf people (lower case "d" deaf) have a medical condition of a severe hearing disability but do not identify themselves as belonging to a separate cultural group.  Their culture is the same as that of the hearing people in their homes and the community.   The lower case "d" deaf almost always are brought up in the oral tradition and do not normally learn or use a sign language.

The upper case "D" deaf, on the other hand, strongly identify with other like-minded Deaf people and thus belong to a separate cultural group from those of the hearing members of their family and their community.  For Deaf people, their deafness is not a disability but simply as a physical characteristic that defines their identity much like someone's skin color or hair type may, in part, help determine one's cultural affiliation.  The use of a sign language is the most important characteristic of being Deaf.

We use the lowercase deaf when referring to the audiological condition of not hearing, and the uppercase Deaf when referring to a particular group of deaf people who share a language – American Sign Language (ASL) – and a culture.  The members of this group have inherited their sign language, use it as a primary means of communication among themselves, and hold a set of beliefs about themselves and their connection to the larger society.  We distinguish them from, for example, those who find themselves losing their hearing because of illness, trauma or age; although these people share the condition of not hearing, they do not have access to the knowledge, beliefs, and practices that make up the culture of Deaf people. (Padden, D. &   Humphries, T. (1988). Deaf in America: Voices from a Culture.  Cambridge, Ma: Harvard University Press.)

Deaf culture is a way of living built up by Deaf people and passed on from generation to generation.  In the hearing community, the cultural values and customs are typically transmitted from parents and other members of the family and the community to a child.  However, most deaf children are born to hearing parents who have no exposure to Deaf community and culture.  A Deaf child, therefore, derives his/her cultural values and customs, not from the hearing members of the family and the community, but from contact with the Deaf members.  Therefore, acculturation -- the process of adopting the cultural values and social patterns of a group different from the one the person is living in -- begins much later for a Deaf child when he/she begins to have regular and extended contact with other Deaf people.

Historically, Deaf culture has often been acquired within schools for the deaf and within Deaf social clubs, both of which unite deaf people into communities with which they can identify. Becoming Deaf culturally can occur at different times for different people, depending on the circumstances of one's life. A small proportion of deaf individuals acquire sign language and Deaf culture in infancy from Deaf parents, others acquire it through attendance at schools, and yet others may not be exposed to sign language and Deaf culture until college or a time after that.   (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_culture)

A community of deaf people shares certain common values, perceive the world around them in a similar way, and have developed various customs, traditions, and institutions that identify them as a distinct social group.  They share a certain world view because of their shared experiences in schools, in their neighborhoods, and in their workplaces.    Interestingly, Deaf culture, in the U. S. belongs to those who are culturally Deaf (whether or not audiologically deaf) and who use ASL to communicate. There are some hearing people in the U.S. -- typically living near a school or college for the Deaf -- who interact extensively with Deaf people, are fluent in ASL, and have adopted the world view and the traits of the Deaf people.  These people are not deaf (do not have a hearing loss) but are accepted as members of the Deaf community.  They are, in other words, culturally Deaf but not audiologically deaf.  

Hearing children of deaf parents (children of deaf parents almost always have normal hearing) are often bicultural and bilingual.  They learn the sign language, such as the ASL, from their parents and they learn the spoken language of the community through exposure to neighbors, extended family, and through radio and television.  Similarly, they learn the values and traditions of the Deaf culture from their parents and the values and customs of the hearing community from the extended family and the community institutions such as the places of worship and schools.  A large number of competent interpreters for the Deaf (those who interpret signing to hearing people and spoken words to Deaf people) are the bicultural and bilingual hearing children of Deaf parents.

SOME FEATURES OF DEAF CULTURE

The use of the telecommunication device for the deaf (TDD or TTY) to talk on the phone.

The reliance on closed captioning of TV broadcasts and movies to enjoy these forms of entertainment.

The strong sense of belonging to the school for the Deaf they attended.   "Where are you from?,"  in the Deaf community, usually means "Which deaf school did you go to?"  In this sense, their ‘home' is not the home they were born in but their cultural home, which is usually the Deaf school.

Name sign -- all Deaf people give themselves a name sign (or more commonly, another member of the Deaf community gives one a name sign) so that people do not have fingerspell the name every time.

Deaf clubs -- Most large cities with a large enough Deaf community tend to have their own clubs and places of worship where they congregate and interact.

Calling attention -- turning on and off lights (if trying to get the attention of a room full of people) or tapping on arm or shoulder (if seeking the attention of an individual) is the "correct" form of calling attention. Clapping is not acceptable.

The use of assistive listening and other specialized devices (e.g. alarms).

Endogamous marriages (both spouses are Deaf) are very common, estimated at 90 percent among Deaf people.  In contrast, the rate of endogamous marriages is much less common in deaf people.

SOME DEAF INSTITUTIONS IN THE U.S.

The following are some selected institutions of the deaf (dates in parentheses are the dates of their establishment).  This shows that the Deaf community is vibrant with the range of activities, interests, and accomplishments similar to those of the hearing community.

SPORTS: The International Games for the Deaf (1924), often referred to as the Deaf Olympics; American Athletic Association of the Deaf (1947)

ASL LITERATURE: Oratory (formal speaking); Folklore (puns, games, jokes, storytelling, etc.); Digital literature (CD-ROM, etc.) flourishes even though ASL has no script.

ARTS: National Theatre of the Deaf (1966); Deaf Artists, Inc. (1985); Spectrum: Focus on Deaf Artists (1975); Videos.

ADVOCACY: World Federation of the Deaf (1951); National Association of the Deaf (1880).

RELIGIOUS: Episcopal Conference of the Deaf (1881); National Congress of Jewish Deaf (1956).  These two just examples.  Nearly all religious faiths and denominations have their own Deaf institutions.

PROFESSIONAL: American Professional Society of the Deaf (1966); National Fraternal Society of the Deaf (1901).

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT DEAF PEOPLE

The hearing community is generally not well informed about Deaf people.  This has resulted in many misconceptions.  Some of them are listed below.

Deaf people can't hear anything.  Nearly all deaf people have some residual hearing and, with the help of hearing aids and assistive listening devices, they can hear many sounds.  However, their ability of understand speech through the sense of hearing alone may be limited.

All deaf people can read lips.  The speech reading ability (understanding speech through lip movements, linguistic context, and facial expressions) is, in part, a natural ability.  Some deaf people are naturally good speech readers while others, even with training, have only a fair ability.

Deaf people are very quiet.  Deaf people make a variety of vocal sounds when engaged in conversation and may even mouth words as they sign.

Deaf people can't talk.  Some deaf people talk as well as hearing people although most deaf people have difficulty with pronunciation to varying degrees.  The type and the severity of hearing loss and the amount of and the age at which the speech training was obtained only partly determine the speech outcome.  Some deaf people with very severe hearing loss are excellent speakers.

All deaf children have deaf parents.  In fact, as stated above, over 90 percent of deaf children have hearing parents.

Deaf children can't attend regular school.  Nowadays, most deaf children attend their neighborhood schools.

Hearing aids let deaf people hear speech.  Modern hearing aids are powerful enough for deaf people to "hear" speech.  However, most deaf people encounter great difficulty discriminating the various speech sounds sufficiently to understand what they hear.

All deaf people wish that they could hear.  In fact, most Deaf people (but not deaf people) would not want to "give up" their Deafness.  They continue to cherish their status as Deaf and view hearing aids or a cochlear implant as a crutch they have to use in order to interact with hearing people.

Deaf people are emotionally disturbed.  Deaf people are no more emotionally disturbed than their hearing peers.  Most deaf people are emotionally well adjusted.

All deaf people know sign language.  In fact, the majority of deaf people in U.S. know very little ASL or none at all.  Of course, all Deaf people in this country know ASL as this is the defining characteristic of being Deaf.

Deaf people can’t drive.  In the U.S., deafness is not a barrier to getting a driver's license.

Deaf people can’t adopt children.  In U.S., all deaf people (whether "deaf" or "Deaf") are allowed to adopt children.

[learningcherryblossoms]

Lesson 18: Parts of the Ear

I hate that this comes after the text I just had which, oddly enough was about the parts of the damn ear. 

To understand deafness, we should know a little bit about how we hear.  Then we can talk about what can go wrong with it.

The ears are located, for the most part, within the temporal bones on either side of the skull. Anatomically, the hearing mechanism may be divided, going from the outer to the innermost structures, into 

1) the outer ear or external ear,

 2) the middle ear, 

3) the inner ear 

4) the neural auditory pathway.  

Functionally, the auditory mechanism may be divided into 

1) the sound-conducting portion (the outer and the middle ears),

 2) the auditory-neural encoding portion (the inner ear and the auditory nerve) and the auditory information-processing portion (the neural auditory centers in the brain).

Outer Ear:

The outer ear, the visible portion of the ear, consists of the auricle (pinna) and the external auditory canal (EAC).  The pinna, whose shape and size show considerable individual variations, is intended to serve as a funnel to gather sound from the environment.  It, however, appears to be a poor gatherer of sound in humans.

The pinna's complicated reflective surface consisting of many grooves and pits appears to provide some information to the brain for localizing the source of sound, particularly those sounds that occur at a midline point above, below, in front of, or at the back of the head.

EAC is a tube for conducting sound from the pinna to the eardrum.  The EAC resonates (amplifies) sounds in the frequency range of approximately 2000 - 4000 Hz, making our ears more sensitive to sounds in this frequency range.

Middle Ear:

The tympanic cavity (middle ear cavity) and the structures contained within it make up the middle ear.   The tympanic cavity is a small, irregularly shaped, six-sided, air-filled cavity located in the temporal bone of the skull.  The tympanic membrane (eardrum), which separates the outer ear from the middle ear, is a cone-shaped, thin, elastic membrane.

A chain of three small bones, the malleus, the incus, and the stapes, suspended delicately within the middle ear cavity, connect the eardrum to the inner ear structures.  The three bones are collectively called the ossicles.

Middle Ear Functions:

The primary function of the outer and the middle ears is to conduct sound to the inner ear.  The sound is collected at the pinna and channeled to the eardrum by way of the external auditory canal.  The eardrum oscillates into and out of the middle ear cavity in response to the alternating high-low air pressure created by the incoming sound.  The vibration from the eardrum is transferred to the ossicular chain, which vibrates in phase with the movement of the eardrum.  The ossicular chain conducts the sound to the inner ear.

In addition to this air conduction, which is the primary mode of sound transmission in the ear, sound is also transmitted to the inner ear through bone conduction - by way of vibration of the bones of the skull - if the decibel levels of the sound are sufficiently high to set the molecules of temporal bones into vibration.    Recall that sounds do travel through solid objects like walls and bones of the skull when they are strong enough.

Have you ever tried to listen to people sitting by the side of the pool talk while you are under water? Unless the people were shouting, chances were that you could hear only muffled sounds. This is because most of the energy in the air-borne sound, when it reaches the surface of the water, is reflected back. Only a small portion of the sound energy penetrates the water to reach your ears under the water.  A similar situation exists in the ear.

The air-conducted sound in the outer ear reaches the liquid-filled cochlea of the inner ear through the middle ear.  This results in a loss of acoustical energy equal to about 30 dB.  The middle ear compensates for this loss of acoustical energy by amplifying the sound coming into the middle ear. The middle ear also provides some degree of protection from damagingly loud sounds.  When very loud sounds reach the middle ear, two muscles in the middle ear cavity contract, partially immobilizing the ossicular chain.  The contraction of the middle ear muscles, the acoustic reflex, is triggered when the sound reaching the middle ear is in excess of 80 dB. The reflex increases the stiffness of the ossicular chain and thus reduces the sound pressure level reaching the inner ear.   The protection of inner ear from loud, damaging sound provided by the acoustic reflex is small; moreover, the reflex has a latency (delay) of 60 to 120 milliseconds and, therefore, cannot protect ear from sudden, loud sounds.

The Eustachian Tube:

Swallow your saliva real hard and you should feel air pressure in the middle ear cavity rise.  The Eustachian tube extends from the upper part of the throat near the base of the skull to the middle ear cavity.    The tube equalizes the air pressure between the external ear canal (where the pressure level is the same as the atmospheric pressure) and the middle ear cavity.   If the pressure on two sides of the eardrum is unequal, then the eardrum tends to be pushed in the direction of the lower pressure, making it less responsive to sound.   The Eustachian tube prevents this from happening.

Sudden changes in outside pressure, as might happen when an airplane takes off or lands, stretch the eardrum to the point of being painful.   Yawning, swallowing and sneezing would cause the Eustachian tube to open up, equalizing the pressure between the outer ear and the middle ear.   In young children, the Eustachian tube is about half as long as in adults and is straighter, providing an easy route for the spread of upper respiratory infections from the throat to the middle ear.  This is, in part, the reason why babies tend to have frequent middle ear infections.

[learningcherryblossoms]

Lesson 17: THE SOUND

Learning any language also involves learning about the people who use that language.  If you are learning Spanish, you should have some understanding of the geography, history, and culture of the Spanish people.  When learning signing and American Sign Language (ASL), we should learn about hearing impairment and the history and culture of Deaf people.  In order to understand deafness, we should know a little bit about the nature of sound.

You have heard the age-old question: If a tree falls and there is no one there to hear it, does it make a sound?    The answer depends on whether you consider sound as a physical event or a sensory experience.  Sound is a physical event and, as such, it is governed by the laws of physics (specifically, a branch of physics called mechanics).  The study of the physical properties of sound is called acoustics.  Sound is also a psychological experience and, therefore, it is important to know how a living organism receives and processes sound.  There are lawful relationships between the physical properties of sound and its perception.   The branch of acoustics that relates the physical properties of sound to its perception is called psychoacoustics.

Sound is not a thing.  It has no substance.  From a physical point of view, sound is a form of energy that propagates as a pressure wave.  Sound is the result of rapid and repeated up and down variations in pressure within a medium.  The sounds we hear exist in the medium of air although, as anyone who has eavesdropped on his/her neighbors can attest, sound also travels through solid objects like walls.  Sound waves in the air are simply rapid and repeated rise and fall in the air pressure from a relatively static (stable) reference pressure (Figure 1).   The reference air pressure is typically the atmospheric pressure. Sound travels in its medium in the form of alternate compression (momentary increase in pressure) and rarefaction (momentary decrease in pressure).   The sound waves traveling in air alternately fall slightly above (compression) and below (rarefaction) the atmospheric pressure.

Each instance of up-down variation (or down-up variation) in the pressure of a sound wave constitutes a cycle of sound.   How many cycles do the sound waves A, B, and C have?  The number of complete cycles occurring in one second is the frequency of sound.  Frequency is measured in Hertz - abbreviated Hz, which stands for cycles per second.  The frequency range of human hearing is approximately 20 - 20,000 Hz.   A young adult with no history of hearing or ear problems is typically able to hear sounds that oscillate just 20 times per second (e.g., slow rustle of leaves in the wind) to 20,000 oscillations per second (e. g., the high-pitched sound of some bird calls). Of course, ear infections, exposure to high levels of noise, and other factors that may damage hearing would reduce the audible range of frequencies.  The audible frequency range, especially at the higher end of the scale, also diminishes with advancing age. What is the frequency range of hearing in dogs?    A Google search might give you the answer!

The frequency of sound is a physical phenomenon that can be objectively measured with appropriate instruments.  Subjectively, we perceive frequency as pitch.   Although sounds that have higher frequency are perceived as having a higher pitch and vice versa, the relationship between pitch and frequency is not linear.   Human beings are most sensitive to frequencies between 1,000 Hz and 4,000 Hz and we can make fine distinctions in pitch in this frequency range.  At frequencies below 1000 Hz and above 4000 Hz, our ability to relate pitch to frequency becomes less accurate.

Sinewaves are the simplest types of sounds possible.  Each cycle of sound in a sinewave has a single, simple up-down pattern, however, most sounds in nature, including speech and music, are complex sounds made up of many sinewaves of different frequencies.

Complex periodic sounds repeat themselves at regular intervals of time.   Complex aperiodic sounds, which we normally perceive as noise, have a random rather than a repetitive pattern. The predictable, repetitive patterns of complex periodic sounds give them a musical quality and a definite pitch.    Most musical instruments and the human voice produced at the larynx (voice box) are examples of complex periodic sounds.  A note produced on the piano is a complex periodic sound. Most machine noises and the consonant sounds such as the /s/ and /f/, which are not produced at the larynx, are complex aperiodic sounds.  Although we perceive /s/ to be of higher pitch than the /f/ sound, we can place neither sound on a pitch scale because they lack a definite pitch.   Unlike the noisy consonants such as /s/, the vowels and the noiseless consonants, such as /m/ and/l/, have the repetitive patterns of complex periodic sounds and, therefore, an identifiable pitch.  The point of this discussion is that all speech sounds are complex and some are periodic and others are aperiodic.  The vowels are relatively low frequency and high intensity (louder) sounds and people with hearing impairment have less trouble hearing them.  Vowels are complex periodic sounds.   In contrast, the relatively high frequency and low intensity consonant sounds (which are complex aperiodic) such as /p/, /k/, /f/, and /s/ are difficult to hear for people with hearing impairment.

The magnitude of pressure variation in a sound wave - by how much the rise and fall in the pressure deviates from the reference pressure  - is the pressure level of the sound.  The sound pressure level (SPL) is measured in decibels, abbreviated dB.  The smallest pressure variation that gives rise to the sensation of sound in young adults with superior hearing ability is equal to 0 dB.    Zero dB, therefore, does not mean that there is no sound; it refers to an arbitrary sound pressure level roughly equal to the softest sound some of us with superior hearing ability can hear.  The most intense sound we can tolerate without feeling a tickling sensation or pain in our ears is equal to 120 dB.  The dynamic range - the audible range of sound pressure variations - is, therefore, equal to 120 dB (0 - 120 dB).

In physics, the unit of measurement of pressure is pascal.  The smallest audible sound pressure level - 0 dB - is equal to 20 micropascals (20 parts out of one million parts of a pascal).  This is an extremely small amount of pressure compared to, for example, the atmospheric pressure (101,325 pascals) at sea level.    Atmospheric pressure is the air pressure that is bearing down on the surface of our bodies.  Even the pressure level that produces an uncomfortably loud sound - 120 dB - has only 20 pascals of pressure.  Our ears are highly sensitive to very small pressure variations.

Loudness is how we perceive sound pressure variations.  Our ears are responsive to an enormous range of pressure variations.   The loudest sound we can tolerate (120 dB) has one million times more pressure than the softest sound (0 dB) we can hear!  However, there is no direct, one-to-one correlation between decibel values (sound pressure levels) and loudness.  A given SPL value in the range of 1,000 to 4,000 Hz (the frequencies to which our ears are most receptive) will sound louder than the same dB value at other frequencies.

 Note that if you stand underneath a jet aircraft with its engines running, the sound will be so intense that you will feel pain in your ears.  People working in such environments will need to wear ear protection devices.  Similarly, if you are close to the stage in a rock and roll concert, you will probably find the sound level uncomfortably loud.

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Lesson 12: Some More Grammatical Markers

Lesson 12: Some More Grammatical Markers

Past Participle Marker

Participles are words that can function either as verbs or as adjectives.  One class of participles — past participles — serve as adjectives or as past tense forms of verbs.  Past participles in English typically end with n (e.g., give changes to given) or with en (e.g., eat changes to eaten) although they may take other forms as well.  In the sentence, He has written to his parents, the past participle written acts as a verb.  In contrast, written in the sentence I have a written agreement with her is an adjective that modifies the meaning of the noun agreement.

In Signed English, the past participle marker consists of the letter shape for n.

 Progressive and Gerund Marker

We have seen how verbs may be modified to denote completion of an action, event or existence by adding regular and irregular past tense forms.  Verbs can also be modified to convey the progression (towards completion) of an action or event.    Sentences such as I am running, It was raining, and I will be taking a class indicate that the actions or events in question are, were, or will be underway with reference to a time frame.  The usual method for indicating progressive tense in English is to add ‘ing’ to the ends of verbs.

Signed English represents the progressive tense of verbs as follows:  Hold out the hand shape for the letter I, palm in, little finger pointing up and bent elbow at side and twist wrist until the palm is facing out. The sign for running consists of the sign for run followed quickly and smoothly by the sign for the progressive marker as described above.

Verbs ending with ing are also used sometimes as nouns — e. g., Talking is fun and Walking is a form of exercise.  In these examples, talking and walking are nouns.  Verbs that function as nouns are known as gerunds.     Although Bornstein, Saulnier, and Hamilton, the inventors of Signed English, are silent as to the use of ing marker to form gerunds, there is no reason why the suffix should not be used for that purpose.   In this course, we shall use ing to form gerunds.

Third Person Singular Marker

The third person singular form of verbs in the present tense in English end with a s — e. g., He works for Joan, Joan runs a business, and The president visits his home state often.  In Signed English too these verbs end with the letter shape for S.   To sign works, sign work followed quickly and smoothly by the letter shape for S.

Possessive Marker

Proper names and most other nouns may be modified to denote possession.  Consider these examples:  Joan’s house is around the corner; The car’s paint is peeling; The community’s patience is running out.  The "apostrophe s" is used in English to modify nouns to denote possession.

In Signed English, the possessive marker is signed as follows :

Hold out the letter shape for s, hand slightly extended and palm facing out, and twist wrist until the palm faces in.  Use the possessive marker in all circumstances where you use an "apostrophe s" in English including for contractions as explained later in this chapter.  For instance, this marker may be used to sign He’s deaf.

Adjectival Marker

In English, nouns may be transformed into adjectives by typically adding a ‘y’ as when sleep changes to sleepy and touch changes touchy. The adjectival marker in Signed English too is a ‘y’ at the ends of nouns.  When signing sleepy, sign sleep followed quickly and smoothly by the hand shape for the letter y.

Only a small subset of English nouns takes on ‘y’ to form adjectives.     Obviously, nouns such as book, light and coffee cannot be made to function as adjectives by adding a y.  Use this adjectival marker only for English nouns that take on the suffix ‘y’.  The adjectival form of book in English is bookish.   However, Signed English does not have a method of denoting irregular adjectival markers of English.  In these circumstances, you will have to use a different sentence structure to convey the same meaning — e. g., Bookish knowledge is not enough may be rephrased as Knowledge from books is not enough.

Contractions

In Signed English, the contractions are formed by signing the first (uncontracted) word (e. g., I in the contraction I’m) followed by forming the appropriate manual letter (m in our example) with the dominant hand, which is then quickly twisted inward so that the palm faces the body.

.  Note that in those instances where the English contracted form involves two letters (e. g., You’re for You are), only the first letter of the contraction is signed (in our example, the -r of re).  

Contractions are not used in ASL.

The American Sign Language uses signs for three frequently used English contractions – can't, won’t, and don’t.  Note that each of these words is represented with a single sign rather than a combination of a sign and a manual letter.  Signed English also uses these signs to represent the concepts.

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Signing Conventions

Lesson 10: Signing Conventions

The hand that you use for writing is most probably your dominant (active) hand, especially if it is also the hand normally used for other everyday motor activities such as eating, throwing a ball, and so on.  The other hand is the non-dominant (passive) hand.  Use your dominant hand for fingerspelling and for all one-handed signs.

In two-handed symmetrical signs, both hands execute the same movement(s) either simultaneously or alternately.  Two-handed nonsymmetrical signs are those in which the dominant hand moves and the non-dominant hand remains stationary or the dominant hand leads the movement with the non-dominant hand performing a secondary movement.

A small number of people are ambidextrous with no clear dominant hand.  If you belong to this group, be sure to use one hand, either right or left, as your active hand consistently.   It is very important to have clearly established dominant and non-dominant hands and use them appropriately to execute the three different types of signs described above.

           As with fingerspelling, always speak when you sign.  This is known as simultaneous communication or SimCom.   Many deaf people can understand your speech by observing your lip movements and facial expressions, a process known as lip reading or, more appropriately, speech reading.  If you are interpreting someone else's speech, speak very softly or simply mouth words.  Do not use exaggerated articulatory movements.  Exaggerated articulatory movements are detrimental to speech reading.

Speak only the words that are roughly equivalent to the signs you are making.  If you sign I go home now, a Signed Pidgin English sentence for the proper English sentence I will go home now, then only utter the words I, go, home, and now in that order.  If your response to the question Do you like country music? is Don’t like (an SPE sentence for the proper English sentence I don’t like it) then utter only those two words.

Because there are large and fundamental differences between English and ASL sentences, it is not possible to speak in complete English sentences while signing in ASL.  It is possible and, in fact, customary to mouth or speak softly the key words (the important words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) when signing in ASL.  True simultaneous communication (complete sentences in both languages) is possible only when using manual English.

The speed of signing is not as important as the clarity and accuracy of signing.  Sign at a pace that is comfortable for you and your communication partner(s).  Unlike speech, which usually cannot be drawn out without jeopardizing its intelligibility and naturalness, signs can be executed at varying speeds without seriously impairing the natural flow and intelligibility of communication.

While the overall speed at which you sign may be adjusted to maximize communicative effectiveness, it is important to ensure that the successive signs in an “utterance” flow smoothly, continuously, and effortlessly.  Avoid jerky movements and uneven tempo.  

Learn as many signs as you can and use fingerspelling only when you don’t know a sign or a suitable sign is not available.  Use only the signs that are currently in use in your community.  Do not make up your own signs.

Appropriate facial expressions and “body language” are as important as the signs themselves.    When you sign various emotions, for instance, express these emotions on your face and with your body.  Assume a happy face when you sign HAPPY and let your body slump a little when you sign TIRED.

It goes without saying that the only way to master signing is through practice.  It is important to practice making signs as well as “reading” them.  In the beginning, set aside a certain portion of every day for practice.  It is best to practice with one or more conversational partners who are also interested in learning and using signing.  Your local library may have videos that may be useful for learning how to sign and read signs.

Language is a big part of any culture and the two are inextricably interconnected.  Learning any language – oral or signed – involves knowing the culture of the people who speak it.  Deaf people have a rich and distinctive culture of their own.  Seek out deaf people in your community to try out your signing skills and to make new friends.   Most deaf people will be very understanding of and gratified to see people from the hearing community show an interest in their language and culture.

As stated in an earlier lesson, there are numerous local, regional, ethnic, and generational variations in signing.  Different people may sign the same concept differently.  There is not, as yet, a standardized set of signs understood by all signers in English-speaking North America.  In addition, just as all of us sound differently when we talk, each signer also has his/her own distinctive way of signing.  These small but systematic differences in signing are akin to dialectal and individual differences in speaking.   Keep in mind that it takes a period of getting used to before you are completely at ease in a new signing situation and with new signing partners.