Third Intermediate Period of Egypt: Era of Foreign Invasion
The Third Intermediate Period (circa 1069-525 BCE) is the era following the New Kingdom (circa 1570 to circa 1069 BCE) and preceding the Late Period of ancient Egypt (525-332 BCE). Egyptian history was divided into eras of kingdoms and intermediate periods by Egyptologists of the 20th century to clarify the country's history, but these were not used by the ancient Egyptians themselves.
The term 'kingdom' is used to define an era of strong central government, while 'intermediate period' designates a time of disunity and divided rule. In the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181-2040 BCE) and the Second Intermediate Period (circa 1782-1570 BCE), this division caused tension between the two seats of power. In the First Intermediate Period, relations were strained between the two kingdoms of Herakleopolis and Thebes, and during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt between Thebes and the Hyksos rulers of Avaris, to the north, and the Nubians to the south.
In the Third Intermediate Period, power was held almost equally between the cities of Tanis and Thebes, but this period differed significantly from the others as it saw the encroachment of the Libyans and the invasions of the Kushites and Persians; it is therefore sometimes referenced as the era of foreign invasion.
The Division of Power
The balance of power between Tanis and Thebes fluctuated at varying times one way or another as the two cities ruled jointly, even though they often had quite different agendas. Tanis was the seat of secular rule, while Thebes was a theocracy. As there was no separation between one's religious and daily life in ancient Egypt, 'secular' should be understood here along the lines of 'pragmatic' or 'empirical.' The rulers of Tanis made their decisions based upon circumstances and accepted the responsibility of the decisions of their king, even though the gods were certainly consulted. The high priests of Amun who ruled at Thebes consulted the god Amun directly on every aspect of rule, and, in fact, Amun could safely be considered the actual "king" of Thebes.
The king of Tanis and the high priest of Thebes were often related, as were those of the two ruling houses. The position of God's Wife of Amun, a seat of great power and wealth, illustrates this clearly, as daughters of the rulers of both Tanis and Thebes held it. Joint projects and policies were undertaken by both cities, as evidenced by inscriptions left by the kings and priests, and each understood and respected the legitimacy of the other.
With this in mind, it is important to note that the Third Intermediate Period has long been regarded as a kind of epilogue to Egyptian history and an even darker age of chaos and collapse than the earlier intermediate periods. None of the intermediate periods of Egypt were as chaotic as early Egyptologists (and even later ones) interpreted them, however. The views of these early scholars were very much influenced by their times and the form of government they recognized as legitimate. Strong central rule was interpreted as good, while decentralized rule – the defining aspect of the intermediate periods – was seen as perilous. In reality, all three of the intermediate periods maintained the continuity of culture without a unifying central government, and each added its own contributions to Egypt's history.
The difference between the first two and the last is that, following the Third Intermediate Period, Egypt did not rise again to continue on to greater heights. In the latter part of the 22nd Dynasty, Egypt was divided by civil war, and by the time of the 23rd, the country was divided between self-styled monarchs who ruled from Herakleopolis, Tanis, Hermopolis, Thebes, Memphis, and Sais. This division made a united defense of the country impossible, and the Nubians invaded from the south.
The 24th and 25th dynasties saw unification under Nubian rule, but the country was not strong enough to resist the advance of the Assyrians, first under Esarhaddon in 671/670 BCE and then by Ashurbanipal in 666 BCE. Although the Assyrians were driven from the country, Egypt did not have the resources to repel other invaders. The Persian invasion of 525 BCE ended Egyptian autonomy until the rise of the 28th Dynasty of Amyrtaeus (circa 404-398 BCE) in the Late Period, which freed Lower Egypt from Persian domination.
Amyrtaeus, however, did not unify the country under Egyptian rule, and the Persians continued to hold Upper Egypt. The 30th Dynasty (circa 380-343 BCE), also of the Late Period of Egypt, did achieve unity, but it did not last long, and the Persians returned in 343 BCE to hold Egypt as a satrapy until it was taken by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. This period, therefore, is generally seen as a long decline that extinguished Egyptian culture, and while that interpretation is understandable, it is not quite accurate.
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⇒ Third Intermediate Period of Egypt: Era of Foreign Invasion
