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Marduk: The Great God of Babylon

Marduk was the patron god of Babylon who presided over justice, compassion, healing, regeneration, magic, and fairness, although he is also sometimes referenced as a storm god and agricultural deity. He rose to prominence during the reign of King Hammuabi of Babylon (1792-1750 BCE). His temple, the famous ziggurat described by Greek historian Herodotus, is considered the model for the biblical Tower of Babel.

The Greeks associated him with Zeus and the Romans with Jupiter, as he was known as the Babylonian King of the Gods. He is depicted as a human in royal robes, carrying a snake-dragon and a spade. Marduk seems to have originated from a local deity known as Asarluhi, a farmer's god symbolized by the spade, known as a marru, which continued as part of his iconography.

Marduk's name, however, though linked to the marru, translates as "bull-calf", although he was commonly referred to simply as Bel (Lord). Far from the local deity he sprang from, Marduk would become one of the most prestigious gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon.

He was the son of the god of wisdom Enki (also known as Ea, considered a creator god in some myths), who was also associated with fresh, life-giving water. Marduk's association with Enki is no doubt linked to the earlier regional deity Asarluhi, who had the same relationship and shared many of Marduk's characteristics. Marduk's wife was the fertility goddess Sarpanitu (though in some myths his wife is Nanaya), and their son was Nabu, the patron god of scribes, literacy, and wisdom.

From a regional agricultural deity, Marduk took on increasing significance for the city of Babylon (and later the Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian Empire), finally becoming the most important and powerful god of the Babylonian and wider Mesopotamian pantheon and attaining a level of worship bordering on monotheism. He was regarded as the creator of the heavens and earth, co-creator with Enki of human beings, and originator of divine order following his victory over the forces of chaos led by the goddess Tiamat, as told in the Enuma Elish. Once he legitimized his rule, he conferred upon the other gods their various duties and responsibilities and organized both the world and the netherworld.

Marduk in the Enuma Elish

The Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish, tells the story of Marduk's rise to power. In the beginning of time, the universe was undifferentiated swirling chaos, which separated into sweet freshwater, known as Apsu (the male principle), and salty, bitter water, known as Tiamat (the female principle). These two deities then gave birth to the other gods. Tiamat loved her children, but Apsu complained because they were too noisy and kept him up at night while distracting him from his work during the day. Eventually, he decided to kill them, and Tiamat, horrified, told her eldest son, Enki, about the plan. Enki then considered the best possible course of action, put his father into a deep sleep, and killed him.

From Apsu's remains, he created his home, the earth, in the marshy region of Eridu. Tiamat never expected her son to kill his father and so declared war on her children, raising up an army of chaos to assist her. At the head of her forces she placed the god Quingu, her new consort, who was victorious over the younger gods in every battle.

At this point in the story, Enki and his siblings begin to despair when the young god Marduk steps forward and says he will lead them to victory if they would first proclaim him their king. Once this is accomplished, Marduk defeats Quingu in single combat and then kills Tiamat by shooting her with an arrow that splits her in two; from her eyes flow the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and from her corpse, Marduk forms the heavens and completes the creation begun by Enki of the earth (in some myths Enki is not mentioned and Marduk is the sole creator of the world).

In consultation with Enki, Marduk then created human beings from the remains of the defeated gods, who had encouraged Tiamat to wage war on her children. The defeated Quingu is executed, and his remains are used to create the first man, Lullu. Marduk then regulates the workings of the world, which includes humanity as co-workers with the gods against the forces of chaos. Henceforth, Marduk decrees, humans will do the work which the gods have no time for, freeing the divine to concentrate on higher purposes and care for human needs. As the gods will care for humans and supply all their needs, humans will respect and heed the will of the gods, and Marduk will reign over all in benevolence.

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⇒ Marduk: The Great God of Babylon

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Siege of Mafeking: Turning Point of the Boer War

Baden-Powell was certainly resourceful, and he employed all kinds of tricks to confuse the Boers during the siege of Mafeking. He made, for example, a searchlight out of a biscuit tin and gave it to a runner who shone the light from various positions to give the impression there were lots of lights, and so a Boer night attack would be less likely. Another ruse was to put stakes amongst the defences and then give the illusion they held in place barbed wire by having the defenders regularly step over non-existent wire. A third ruse was to place wooden crates around the town’s perimeter, only some of which had dynamite in them. A few of these crates were exploded as a deterrent to the Boers and to convince the spies inside the town that all of them were dangerous.

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⇒ Siege of Mafeking: Turning Point of the Boer War

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Civil wars have repeatedly emerged as some of the most destructive conflicts in human history because they combine military violence with political collapse, social fragmentation, famine, disease, and ideological struggle within already interconnected societies. Unlike many interstate wars, civil wars often target the institutions, economies, and populations that sustain the state itself, producing prolonged instability and demographic catastrophe. From the late Roman Civil Wars and the An Lushan Rebellion to the Taiping Rebellion and the Russian Civil War, these conflicts often marked turning points in the collapse, transformation, or consolidation of major states and empires. Many of these wars also accelerated broader historical transitions. The Thirty Years' War contributed to the emergence of the modern European state system following the Peace of Westphalia (1648), while the American Civil War transformed the constitutional and social structure of the United States. Others, such as the Mexican Revolution and the Spanish Civil War, reflected the growing ideological polarization of the modern era. Although differing greatly in context, scale, and chronology, these conflicts demonstrate how internal warfare has repeatedly reshaped political legitimacy, state power, and the historical trajectory of entire civilizations.

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Tiamat: The Great Mesopotamian Goddess of Chaos

Tiamat is the Mesopotamian goddess associated with primordial chaos and the salt sea, best known from the Babylonian epic Enuma Elish. In all versions of the myth, following the original, Tiamat always symbolizes the forces of chaos, which threaten the order established by the gods, and Marduk (or Ashur in Assyrian versions) is the hero who preserves it.

She is depicted, in later periods, as a female serpent or dragon based on vague descriptions of her in Enuma Elish, but no iconography exists from ancient Mesopotamia. Her name, according to scholar Jeremy Black, comes from the word tiamtum, meaning "sea" (Gods, Demons, and Symbols, 177). Although her name is referenced in a much earlier Akkadian inscription, she does not figure in extant Mesopotamian mythological literature until the Enuma Elish, written under the reign of the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) and usually dated to circa 1750 BCE but no doubt written earlier. Later mentions of the goddess are simply copies and variations of this work.

It has been suggested that Tiamat is the Babylonian version of the Sumerian mother goddess Nammu (also given as Namma), but there are significant differences between the two deities, notably that Nammu is consistently a nurturing, caring figure while Tiamat is vengeful and tempestuous.

In the Enuma Elish, she is defeated by the hero-god Marduk, and some scholars, including Paul Kriwaczek, interpret the poem as a 'codified' history of the rise of the male chieftain (known as the lugal, "big man") in Mesopotamian society. Other scholars (such as Robert Graves) have seen the work as a poetic response to the loss in status of female deities during Hammurabi's reign when male gods – notably Marduk – superseded them, arguing that the poem is an artistic representation of the rise of a patriarchal religious paradigm over an earlier matriarchal model.

It is more likely, however, that neither of these interpretations is correct or, at least, they do not fully address Tiamat's character or the central focus of the Enuma Elish. Both interpretations ignore the history of the time the poem was written and fail to fully address the character of Tiamat and how the author of the Enuma Elish draws on the earlier Sumerian goddesses, Nammu and Inanna, to create the goddess of chaos.

Nammu, Inanna, & Tiamat

Nammu is first attested during the Early Dynastic period in Mesopotamia (circa 2900-2350/2334 BCE), specifically the period known as Early Dynastic III (2600-2350 BCE), although she most likely existed in oral form before that. Nammu is described as the "original mother who gave birth to the gods" in the Sumerian poem Enki and Ninmah, but this work has not been definitively dated. Jeremy Black comments:

Lack of anything but a fairly general historical framework for Sumerian compositions means that any chronological approach to literary questions, such as the development of genres or correlation with historical processes or events, must be largely abandoned.

(Reading Sumerian Poetry, 23)

In Enki and Ninmah, the goddess Ninmah (better known as Ninhursag) and the god of wisdom, Enki, create human beings as helpers for the younger gods who are tired of manual labor and the maintenance of order against the forces of chaos. When the poem begins, the younger gods have been crying out to Enki to help them, but he continues to sleep and does not hear until he is awakened by his mother Nammu, who carries the gods' tears to him and influences him to do something about the problem.

Unlike Nammu, Inanna was never a mother goddess. Inanna was the Sumerian goddess of fertility, love, procreation, and sensuality, but she was also associated with war, violence, and capriciousness. She was originally a minor vegetative deity who grew so popular that she came to be worshipped throughout Mesopotamia as the Queen of Heaven and is featured in a number of well-known Mesopotamian myths as well as in The Epic of Gilgamesh (written circa 2150-1400 BCE) under her later incarnation as Ishtar.

In a number of works (Inanna and the Huluppu Tree, Inanna and the God of Wisdom, among others), she is seen as manipulative and devious, primarily interested in getting her own way. She was popularized quite early in Mesopotamian history by the Akkadian priestess and poetess Enheduanna (circa 2300 BCE), daughter of Sargon of Akkad (reign 2334-2279 BCE), founder of the Akkadian Empire, and, by the time of Hammurabi, was the most popular deity in Mesopotamia and patron goddess of the city of Babylon.

Tiamat has been claimed to be the Babylonian version of Nammu, but there is hardly any scholarly consensus on this claim. The only similarity between the two is that both are female, associated with the sea, and feature in stories concerning the creation of the world and humanity. Some scholars have noted that neither goddess had a cult following or temple dedicated to them, but this claim has been challenged by the mention of a shrine to Nammu in Babylon.

The most significant difference between the two is their intrinsic nature: Nammu is a nurturer, while Tiamat's initial impulse toward caring for others is blunted by her seeming betrayal by her children, and, afterwards, she becomes vengeful and destructive. This latter aspect of Tiamat associates her closely with Inanna, who, especially in The Epic of Gilgamesh as Ishtar, does not take rejection well and is prone to a violent response.

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⇒ Tiamat: The Great Mesopotamian Goddess of Chaos

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French and Indian War: The Final Clash of Empires in North America

The French and Indian War (1754-1763) was the last great colonial conflict waged between Great Britain and France in North America. Often considered a theater of the global Seven Years' War (1756-1763), it was sparked over a territorial dispute in the Ohio River Valley but escalated into a full-scale war of conquest and imperial domination. The war reached its climax at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in September 1759, which led to the British capture of Quebec City and the fall of New France. In the Treaty of Paris of 1763, France ceded Canada to Britain, ending the century-long struggle between the two empires for control of the North American continent.

Background

In the first half of the 18th century, the colonial empires of Great Britain and France struggled for dominance in North America. This imperialistic rivalry had already given rise to three almighty wars: King William's War, Queen Anne's War, and King George's War. Villages had been destroyed and farmsteads razed, while rivers of blood – English, French, and Indigenous alike – had watered the rocky fields of New England as well as the dark soil of the Virginian and Pennsylvanian backcountries. But the great appetites of the colonial powers were still unsatiated, and it was clear that another storm was coming, that one final, great war that would engulf Colonial America in its fury.

The trouble would begin along the banks of the Ohio River, a lush and fertile valley lusted after by both colonial powers. Of course, the Ohio Country was not unoccupied but was, at least nominally, controlled by the powerful Iroquois Confederacy and was home to several Indigenous peoples living under Iroquois protection; these included the Algonquin-speaking Delawares and Shawnees, and the Iroquoian-speaking Mingos. By midcentury, British traders had begun to operate in the Ohio Country, building commercial ties with various Native American villages. This activity threatened the French, who had spent decades weaving a delicate web of Indigenous alliances that could quickly unravel should the British gain too much influence.

The British, however, did not only want to establish a trading presence along the Ohio but were interested in something more permanent. The British colony of Virginia was particularly interested in expanding westward. Not only did Virginia already claim the Ohio Country – indeed, its colonial charter grandly proclaimed that its western border reached all the way to the shores of the Pacific – but it desperately needed the fertile lands along the river. Virginia's economy centered around the production of tobacco, a crop that depleted the nutrients of the soil it was planted in. As such, Virginian planters were in constant need of fresh lands and naturally turned toward the untouched soil of the Ohio Valley. Wealthy investors pooled their funds to form land speculation companies, like the Ohio Company, that quickly bought up land.

The French looked on this development with apprehension, for they had every reason to fear Anglo-American westward expansion. So long as the British colonies were contained to the east of the Appalachian Mountains, a certain balance of power could be maintained in North America. But if the British penetrated the interior of the continent, French trading interests could easily be upset. Moreover, the French relied on the Ohio River as a waterway connecting the two disparate parts of New France, including Canada to the north and Louisiana to the south. They could not afford to lose control of the river. In June 1747, the French sent a military expedition to the region under Pierre-Joseph de Céloron, both to ward off the pesky British traders and to remind the Indigenous peoples where their loyalties should lie.

Céloron's expedition failed to scare off the British, who continued to be active in the Ohio Country in the early 1750s. In 1752, the new governor-general of New France, the Marquis de Duquesne, dispatched a new expedition into the Ohio Country with the goal of punishing the Indigenous village of Pickawillany for ignoring his orders and continuing to trade with the British. The French brought fire and blood to the village, capturing three British traders and killing 14 Native Americans. The following spring, the French acted with even more aggression and began building a series of fortresses along the river. This directly interfered with the interests of the Ohio Company; if they could not convince the French to stand down, they would lose all the land they had purchased.

Lt. Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the company and was determined to use his office to enforce Britain's claims to the land. He decided to send a diplomatic mission to the newly built Fort LeBeuf to remind the French that the land did not belong to them and to demand that they leave immediately. The only question was who Dinwiddie would choose to lead this sensitive expedition.

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⇒ French and Indian War: The Final Clash of Empires in North America

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Russia Turns Red

In November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia and created Soviet Russia. Led by Vladimir Lenin, they promised bread, land, peace, and a fairer society for workers and peasants. Their victory ended the old government and opened a new political era.

Key Facts

Date: 7 November 1917, or 25 October in the old Russian calendar.

Leader: Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party.

Method: They took power by force with the Red Guards militia.

Target: The weak Provisional Government failed to solve Russia’s crises.

Promises: Immediate peace, land reform, economic control, and a Constituent Assembly.

Support: They won backing from many workers, soldiers, and soviets.

Result: Russia withdrew from World War I.

Aftermath: The Bolsheviks became the Communist Party, and only one party was allowed.

Historical Context

Russia was in chaos in 1917. Tsar Nicholas II had already abdicated, but the new government could not fix war, hunger, inflation, or unrest. The Bolsheviks used this anger to present themselves as the only group offering real change.

Historical Significance

The revolution transformed Russia from an empire into the world’s first major socialist state. It also helped shape the rise of the Soviet Union, one of the most powerful states of the 20th century. Its success showed how war, crisis, and clear political messaging could overturn an old order fast.

Learn More: Bolshevik Revolution: When Russia Became a Socialist State in 1917

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Ancient Egyptian Warfare: The Force That Built an Empire

The Egyptians considered their land the most perfect in the world and were not so much interested in conquest as in preservation of what they had. The early records of Egyptian warfare all have to do with civil unrest, not conquest of other lands, and this would be the paradigm from the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (circa 3150-2613 BCE) until the time of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE), when the kings of the 12th Dynasty maintained a standing army which they led on military campaigns beyond their borders.

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⇒ Ancient Egyptian Warfare: The Force That Built an Empire

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From the voyages of the Portuguese navigators under the patronage of Henry the Navigator in the 15th century to the transcontinental expeditions of Henry Morton Stanley in the 1870s, European exploration of Africa gradually transformed European geographic knowledge of the continent. Early expeditions focused primarily on maritime navigation and access to the gold, spice, and Indian Ocean trade networks. Explorers such as Gil Eanes, Bartolomeu Dias, and Vasco da Gama established new Atlantic and Indian Ocean sea routes during the reigns of John I of Portugal (reign 1385–1433), John II of Portugal (reign 1481–1495), and Manuel I of Portugal (reign 1495–1521). During the 18th and 19th centuries, scientific curiosity, missionary activity, commercial ambition, and competition between European states drove explorers deeper into the Sahara, the Niger Basin, the Nile system, and the African Great Lakes. Expeditions by Mungo Park, Heinrich Barth, Richard Francis Burton, John Hanning Speke, and David Livingstone helped resolve long-standing European geographical questions concerning the Niger River, the source of the Nile, and the river systems of Central Africa.

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Joachim Murat

Joachim Murat (1767–1815) rose from seminary student to cavalry officer, then became one of Napoleon’s most famous commanders. Born in La Bastide-Fortunière, he left the seminary, joined the cavalry, and quickly proved himself during the French Revolution.

He later served Napoleon in Italy and Egypt, distinguished himself at Aboukir, and helped in the Coup of 18 Brumaire. In 1800 he married Caroline Bonaparte, and by 1804 he was a marshal of the French Empire. Napoleon then made him Grand Duke of Berg and, in 1808, King of Naples.

As ruler of Naples, Murat and Caroline saw themselves as allies of Napoleon rather than obedient vassals. He won the affection of many of his subjects, but his relationship with Napoleon grew strained after the failed invasion of Sicily and his refusal to fully enforce the Continental System.

During Napoleon’s Russian campaign in 1812, Murat commanded the cavalry and played a major role in the fighting. But after Napoleon’s defeat in 1814, Murat turned against him to save his own throne. When Napoleon returned in 1815, Murat tried once more to secure his position, but his army was defeated at Tolentino.

He fled, was captured after landing in Calabria, and was executed by firing squad on 13 October 1815. His remains were buried in Italy, a cenotaph was raised in Paris, and the House of Murat survives to this day.

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The above summary was generated by AI using Perplexity Sonar. To read the orginial human-authored article, please visit Joachim Murat.

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Ninhursag: The Original Mother Earth

Ninhursag is one of the four creating deities in Sumerian religious belief (along with Anu, Enlil, and Enki) and is frequently mentioned in many of the most important Mesopotamian myths. She is among the most likely candidates for the original "Mother Earth" figure, developing from Nammu, as she is associated with fertility, growth, transformation, creation, pregnancy, childbirth, and nurture.

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⇒ Ninhursag: The Original Mother Earth

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Mont-Saint-Michel Rises

Mont-Saint-Michel is a tiny island with a giant presence. Rising from the tidal flats off the coast of Normandy and Brittany, it is best known for its dramatic Gothic Benedictine abbey, built over centuries and dedicated to St. Michael. Once a place of religious and strategic importance, it is now one of France’s most famous landmarks and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Key Facts

Location: A tidal island near the mouth of the Couesnon River in France.

Famous for: The striking Benedictine abbey at its summit.

Built: From the 11th to 16th centuries CE.

Dedication: The abbey honors the Archangel St. Michael.

Nickname: Known as the “Wonder of the West.”

Recognition: Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.

Popularity: Draws over 3 million visitors each year.

Historical Context

Mont-Saint-Michel mattered long before it became a tourist icon. During the era of the Merovingians, it already held religious, cultural, and strategic value. Over time, monks transformed the island into a major pilgrimage and architectural site, shaping the dramatic abbey that still dominates the landscape.

Historical Significance

Mont-Saint-Michel shows how faith, power, and landscape can come together in one unforgettable place. Its abbey stands as a major achievement of medieval building, while its survival and fame reveal why it remains one of the most celebrated sites in French history.

Learn More: Mont-Saint-Michel

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Palestine: The Ancient Land of Canaan

In the ancient world, Palestine was part of the region known as Canaan, where the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah were located. The term "Philistia" (from which "Palestine" comes) initially referred to an area of land in southern Canaan, which the people known as the Philistines occupied a very small part of.

The Canaanites, Canaanite-Phoenicians, and the Israelites, among others, established themselves in the area much earlier. The Philistines are thought to have come to the area toward the end of the Bronze Age, circa 12th century BCE, and established themselves on the southern coastal plain of the Mediterranean Sea in an area afterwards known as Philistia.

The whole of the region was referred to as Canaan in Mesopotamian texts and trade records found at Ebla and Mari as early as the 18th century BCE, while the term "Palestine" does not appear in any written records until the 5th century BCE in the Histories of Herodotus. After Herodotus, the term Palestine came to be used for the entire region, which was formerly known as Canaan.

The region is part of the so-called Fertile Crescent, and human habitation there can be traced back to before 10,000 BCE. The lands were originally inhabited by nomadic hunter-gatherers who most likely immigrated from Mesopotamia but became sedentary agriculturalists by the Early Bronze Age (circa 3300 to circa 2000 BCE). In the Middle Bronze Age (circa 2100 to circa 1550 BCE), trade with other nations expanded and Canaan prospered. In the Late Bronze Age (circa 1550 to circa 1200 BCE), this affluence continued as the region was incorporated into the Egyptian Empire (circa 1570 to circa 1069 BCE).

As Egypt's influence and power waned, that of the Assyrians grew, and there were Assyrian incursions into other lands as early as 1295 BCE. The entire Near East suffered during the so-called Bronze Age Collapse of circa 1250 to circa 1150 BCE, and Canaan was no exception. According to the biblical book of Joshua, the Israelite general Joshua invaded the land and divided the region among his people. The late-date theory of the event places it at circa 1250 BCE, and archaeological evidence shows signs of widespread destruction in the region around that time. However, the Sea Peoples (whose identity remains unknown) arrived in the region at approximately that same time and could have been responsible for the evident destruction of towns and cities, as they were in other nations.

The Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and the armies of Alexander the Great all conquered the region in succession, and, finally, so too, the armies of Rome. By the time Rome appeared in the land, it was long known as Judea, a term taken from the ancient Kingdom of Judah, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians.

It was also referred to, however, as Palestine and, after the Bar-Kochba Revolt of 132-136, the Roman emperor Hadrian renamed the region Syria-Palaestina to punish the Jewish people for their insurrection (by naming it after their two traditional enemies, the Syrians and the Philistines). The designations Philistia, Roman Judea, and Palestine were all in use afterwards.

When the Western Roman Empire fell, Palestine was taken by the Eastern or Byzantine Empire and held until circa 634, when it was taken by invading Muslim armies from Arabia.

Name

The name Palestine is thought to derive from either the word plesheth (meaning "root palash," an edible concoction carried by migratory tribes, which came to symbolize nomadic peoples), from the Egyptian word Peleset ("Land of the Philistines"), or from Philistia ("Land of the Philistines"). The author Tom Robbins has suggested the term Palestine originates from the ancient androgynous god Pales, who was worshipped in the region of Canaan. If this is so, then Palestine means "Land of Pales."

It has been established that there was an androgynous deity named Pales (referred to in texts as both a god and a goddess) who was recognized by the Romans as the patron deity of shepherds and sheep and whose festivals were celebrated on 21 April and 7 July in Rome in the area of the Palatine Hill (Adkins & Adkins, 269).

There is, however, no documentation from ancient times linking this deity to the name of the region, and most likely "Palestine" derives from "Philistia," as noted by scholars J. Maxwell Miller and John H. Hayes:

Along the southern coastal plain of the Eastern Mediterranean seaboard (roughly south of present-day Tel Aviv) were settled the Philistines. They came to that region as a part of the general 'Sea Peoples' migrations at the end of the Bronze Age and inhabited five main cities – Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza.

Although historically the Philistines are to be associated specifically with the coastal plain, during Classical Times the name 'Philistia' ("Land of the Philistines") came to be applied more generally to the whole southern end of the Eastern Mediterranean Seaboard…In short, then, the English term 'Palestine' derives ultimately from 'Philistia'.

(39-40)

Following Herodotus' use of the term in his work in the 5th century BCE, other writers adopted it in their own, and Palestine gradually replaced Canaan as the name of the region.

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⇒ Palestine: The Ancient Land of Canaan

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Enki: The Tricky Sumerian God of Wisdom

Enki (also known as Ea, Enkig, Dis, Nagbu, Nissiku Nudimmud) was the Sumerian god of wisdom, freshwater, intelligence, trickery and mischief, crafts, magic, exorcism, healing, creation, virility, fertility, and art. In every story or legend, Enki is associated with the heights and depths of universal understanding and is always seen as a friend of humanity. When given a choice between serving the will of the gods or the needs of the people, Enki always chose human interests and always the path of compassion, forgiveness, and wisdom.

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⇒ Enki: The Tricky Sumerian God of Wisdom

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Ancient Israelite & Judean Religion: Its History and Development

As early as the 10th century BCE, Israelite and Judean religion began to emerge within the broader West Semitic culture, otherwise known as Canaanite culture. Between the 10th century and the 7th century BCE, ancient Israelite and Judean religion was polytheistic. The polytheism, though, was counterbalanced by devotion to one or two primary deities, a practice known as henotheism. Henotheism is the recognition and worship of many deities; however, the primary worship revolves around a single deity. Within Judean and Israelite communities, primary devotion was oftentimes towards Yahweh. As both Judah and Israel were emerging states, Yahweh was the national deity, an idea tjat finds its origins in religious practices from the Bronze Age.

In terms of practice, temple worship and sacrificial rituals like Yom Kippur, New Moon festivals, Pesach, and other festivals played a central role. Practices such as divination and prophecy were also common forms of religious devotion. In terms of actions, ethical behavior played an important role in how ancient Israelite and Judeans expressed religious devotion.

The Broader West Semitic Context

Between the 10th and 7th century BCE, ancient Israelite and Judean religion took place in cultic and temple contexts. Although the many Jewish and Christian traditions suggest that Yahweh was the main and only deity throughout all Israelite and Judean religious history, archaeology, inscriptions, and the Hebrew Bible itself indicate otherwise. Even so, the deity being worshiped, usually Yahweh, was understood to be physically present in the temple, have a body, and be a personal god with emotions and willpower.

Furthermore, ancient Israelite and Judean religion shared the common idea that the deity was a divine essence. This divine essence was often expressed through the notion of holiness. So, the worshippers were required to maintain the temple's holiness so that the deity would be able to live in the temple, which was considered his or her house. To do this, sacrifices, offerings, and liturgy were offered to the deities. Broadly speaking, these form a basic framework for how ancient Israelites and Judeans expressed religious devotion to their deity.

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⇒ Ancient Israelite & Judean Religion: Its History and Development

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Enlil: Mesopotamian Keeper of the Tablets of Destiny

Enlil (also known as Ellil and Nunamnir) was the Sumerian god of the air in the Mesopotamian pantheon, but he was more powerful than any other elemental deity and eventually was worshiped as King of the Gods. He is featured in a number of important Mesopotamian texts as the greatest of the gods after his father.

He was the son of the god of the heavens, Anu (also known as An), and, with Anu and Enki (god of wisdom), formed a triad which governed the heavens, earth, and underworld or, alternately, the universe, sky and atmosphere, and earth. After Anu, Enlil was the most powerful of the Mesopotamian gods, keeper of the Tablets of Destiny, which contained the fates of gods and humanity, and considered an unstoppable force whose decisions could not be questioned.

The Heavenly Corporation's CEO

The city of Nippur was the central seat of Enlil's worship at the temple/ziggurat known as "the Mountain House" – described as "glistening" and magnificent in the hymn Enlil in the E-Kur – but he was also honored in Babylon and other cities. He was the only god with direct access to Anu, who controlled the universe, and was highly respected for this position, but at the same time, his decisions seem to be final without regard to Anu, and so it can seem unclear what Anu's influence over Enlil was.

Although his name translates as "Lord of Air," he was clearly considered much more than a sky god. He is referred to as "Father of the Black-headed People" (the Sumerians) and "Father of the Gods" in some inscriptions, but other ancient texts make clear that Enki conceived of creating human beings and the gods were either born of Anu and Uras (Heaven and Earth) or, according to the Babylonian Enuma Elish, from Apsu and Tiamat (Fresh and Salt Water) or their children Anshar and Kishar (also Heaven and Earth). Scholar Stephen Bertman tries to clarify Enlil's position:

If Anu was the heavenly chairman of the board, Enlil was the heavenly corporation's CEO, or chief executive officer. His cosmic headquarters were based at Nippur. His executive assistant was his son Nuska. Enlil/Ellil was a family man, married to Ninlil (also called Sud), and with her he raised a brood that included - among others - the moon-god Nanna/Sin, the sun-god Utu-Shamash, the weather god Ishkur/Adad, and the love-goddess Inanna/Ishtar.

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Although that explanation may clarify somewhat, Enlil is also sometimes referred to as the son of Enki and Ninki (Lord and Lady Earth, and not Enki, the god of wisdom), while Enki, the god of wisdom, is established as the twin brother of Ishkur/Adad, which would make him obviously another son of Enlil, which was not how Enki was usually understood.

Further, although Inanna is frequently depicted as a daughter of Enki, she is also given as Enlil's child. All of these seeming contradictions stem from Mesopotamia's long history and the different cultures that adopted Sumerian gods and made them their own with additions and alterations to their stories. Sometimes these changes expand upon or continue older stories, but in various eras, different scribes in ancient Mesopotamia simply rewrote the tales to suit their purposes.

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⇒ Enlil: Mesopotamian Keeper of the Tablets of Destiny

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A Maya incense burner in the form of Itzamnaaj. The god wears a costume with feline headdress. Painted ceramic, c. 1200-1521, Peten, Guatemala (St. Louis Art Museum, Missouri)

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Anu: Mesopotamian Father of the Gods

Anu (also known as An) is an early Mesopotamian sky god who was later viewed as the Father of the Gods and ruler of the heavens, a position which then passed to his son Enlil. As veneration of the god progressed, he became more and more remote. One of the many younger gods born of Apsu and Tiamat, Anu gradually became recognized as the lord of the heavens above the sky and the god who ordered and maintained all aspects of existence. He was finally seen as the master creator behind all the workings of the universe but distanced from both humanity and the other gods.

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⇒ Anu: Mesopotamian Father of the Gods