Get the basics on doing a survey for scientific research purposes
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Survey for scientific research How to write a survey for scientific research? I am writing this article because several students ask me to supervise their master thesis using survey as a research methodology. Sometimes they see it as an "easy way out" of their thesis. In this article I am
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Survey for scientific research How to write a survey for scientific research? I am writing this article because several students ask me to supervise their master thesis using survey as a research methodology. Sometimes they see it as an "easy way out" of their thesis. In this article I am
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How to write a survey for scientific research? I am writing this article because several students ask me to supervise their master thesis using survey as a research methodology. Sometimes they see it as an “easy way out” of their thesis. In this article I am summarizing some of the core messages of an old…
Headaches in Adolescents- Frequency, Risk Factors and Other Health Complaints: Cross-Sectional Study in Croatia
Headaches in Adolescents- Frequency, Risk Factors and Other Health Complaints: Cross-Sectional Study in Croatia by Ivana Pavić Šimetin in Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research (BJSTR) https://biomedres.us/fulltexts/BJSTR.MS.ID.000212.php
Longitudinal study is a correlational and observational study in research field. In a longitudinal study, researchers conduct several observations of the same subjects over a period of time, sometimes lasting many years. The benefit of a longitudinal study is that researchers are able to detect developments or changes in the characteristics of the target population at both the group and the individual level. Longitudinal studies extend beyond a single moment in time. Frequently, researchers meet with the subjects many times on a regular basis, for example every two months or every five years. The length of time is dependent on the topic of the research, the length of the study, and the age of the subjects. The identifying feature of longitudinal research is studying one group of individuals over time.
A cohort study is a subset of the longitudinal study because it observes the effect on a specific group of people over time. Quite often, a longitudinal study is an extended case study, observing individuals over long periods, and is a purely qualitative undertaking.
Types of Longitudinal Research
There are three major types of longitudinal studies:
1) Panel Study: Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals.
2) Cohort Study: Involves selecting a group based on a specific event such as birth, geographic location or historical experience.
3) Retrospective Study: Involves looking to the past by looking at historical information such as medical records.
Advantage of Longitudinal Research
1)The primary benefit of longitudinal research is its ability to give researchers a look at changes in variables over times.Other types of studies cannot do this to any sort of comparable extent.
2) Longitudinal studies are often employed in studies that focus on development related topics.
3) Longitudinal studies are also used in studies that focus on issues pertaining to human lifespans.
4) It can show age related change or continuity avoids confounding age with cohort effects
5) Longitudinal studies are very interesting and can reveal fascinating trends among samples.
6) High in validity - people usually do not remember past events and if they were asked about their past, they would not remember.
7) Picking up long-term changes.
Disadvantage of Longitudinal Research
1) Its time consuming and expensive.
2) It presents problem of attrition.bias in sample and effects of repeated testing.
3) Results may be valid only for cohort tested or sample studied.
4) Longitudinal studies are typically restricted to a small group of subjects; this makes it hard to generate results that can be generalized to the overall population.
5) The possibility that subjects could remove themselves from the study at some point. This makes the sample size even smaller and somewhat defeats the purpose of randomization (ensuring that the sample represents a random selection of members of the larger population).
Cross-sectional designs are sampled groups taken and examined from a continuum to determine if there is a difference between different sections of the continuum. This is unfortunately a little vague because different continuums can be used. Cross-sectional designs are used to examine how people change over time by using representatives from different age categories.
One of the advantages offered by a cross-sectional design is that researchers don't have to worry about losing entire sample group as time passes or what might happen over the years because the entire experiment is completed in one test run. The defining feature of a cross-sectional study is that it can compare different population groups at a single point in time. Think of it in terms of taking a snapshot. Findings are drawn from whatever fits into the frame.The benefit of a cross-sectional study design is that it allows researchers to compare many different variables at the same time.
Advantage of Cross Sectional Research
1) Cross Sectional Research are quick and cheap
2) There is no follow up, less resource are required to run the study and quicker than other designs.
3) Cross sectional studies are the best way to determine prevalence and are useful at identifying associations that can then be more rigorously studied using a cohort study or randomised controlled study.
4) Ethically safe.
5) Quick data collection.
6) Attrition is not an issue and it holds time constant.
Disadvantage of Cross Sectional Research
1) Study is differentiating cause and effect from simple association.
2) There are a number of plausible explanations.
3) Recall bias susceptibility.
4) Rare conditions cannot efficiently be studied.
5) Con founders may be unequally distributed between groups
6) Does not economize on subjects
7) Differences may be due to age/time effects or cohort effects
8) Inter-subject variability exists, making it harder to detect a difference
Content analysis refers to a general set of techniques useful for analysing and understanding collections of text. Content Analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. It is a method for summarizing any form of content by counting various aspects of the content. This enables a more objective evaluation than comparing content based on the impressions of a listener.
Content analysis can be a powerful tool for determining authorship. For instance, one technique for determining authorship is to compile a list of suspected authors, examine their prior writings, and correlate the frequency of nouns or function words to help build a case for the probability of each person's authorship of the data of interest. It can be a useful technique for allowing us to discover and describe the focus of individual, group, institutional, or social attention
Two Types of Content Analysis :
1) Conceptual Analysis - analyse the existence and frequency of concepts in human communication.
2) Relational Analysis – analyse the relationship of concepts in human communications.
Content Analysis show three distinct approaches:
1) Conventional - coding categories are derived directly from the text data.
2) Directed - analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes 3) Summative. - counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the underlying context.
All three approaches are used to interpret meaning from the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic paradigm.
Three kinds of units are employed in content analysis:
1) Sampling units - How the researcher makes meaning; they could be words, sentences, or paragraphs.
2) Context units - Neither need be independent or separately describable. They may overlap and contain many recording units. set physical limits on what kind of data you are trying to record.
3) Recording units - Ideas regarding the purpose of study
Steps of content analysis are:
1) We need to copy and read through the transcript and make brief notes in the margin when interesting or relevant information is found
2) Need to go through the notes made in the margins and list the different types of information found
3) Need to read through the list and categorise each item in a way that offers a description of what it is about
4) Identify whether or not the categories can be linked any way and list them as major categories (or themes) and / or minor categories (or themes)
5) Compare and contrast the various major and minor categories
6) If there is more than one transcript, repeat the first five stages again for each transcript
7) When we have done the above with all of the transcripts, collect all of the categories or themes and examine each in detail and consider if it fits and its relevance
8) Once all the transcript data is categorised into minor and major categories/themes, review in order to ensure that the information is categorised as it should be.
9) Review all of the categories and ascertain whether some categories can be merged or if some need to them be sub-categorised
10) Return to the original transcripts and ensure that all the information that needs to be categorised has been so.
Advantages of Content Analysis
1) It can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations.
2) It can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts.
3) It allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text.
4) It can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert .
5) It is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions.
6) It looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the central aspect of social interaction.
Disadvantages of Content Analysis
1) It can be extremely time consuming.
2) It is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation.
3) It is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful inferences about the 4) Relationships and impacts implied in a study.
5) It is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts.
6) It can be difficult to automate or computerize.
Cross-sectional Study, Proportions and Ratios Sample Problem
Cross-sectional Study, Proportions and Ratios Example
A proportion is a fraction in which the numerator is included in the denominator. For example, the proportion of A in a mixture containing parts A, B and C is as follows:
Proportin of A = [A/(A+B+C)] X 100
First determine the total number of subjects examined:
Total = 373+483+260+124 = 1240
Next, determine the proportion of subjects in each blood group.
Answer:
O = 373/1240 x 100 = 30%
A = 483/1240 x 100 = 39%
B = 260/1240 x 100 = 21%
AB = 124/1240 x 100 = 10%
You many then calculate the ratio between groups, such as between groups A and AB:
483 with A:124 with AB = 483/124 = 3.90:1 or approximately 4:1 (ratio of A to AB)
