Mahmud II: Reformist Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Mahmud II was one of the most influential sultans of the Ottoman Empire. As a radical reformer, he strove to implement military and governmental reforms to prevent the empire from collapsing. His removal of the Janissary corps, the establishment of new government institutions, and new measures regarding appearance brought about radical changes in the Ottoman army and society, and because of this very reason, he was known as "Infidel Sultan." He laid the foundations of the modern state structure not only through military reforms but also through measures such as the first census, the first official gazette (Takvim-i Vekayi), the establishment of modern ministries (Interior, Foreign Affairs, etc.), and the modernization of the bureaucracy.
The era in which Mahmud II (1785-1839) was born was a period of crisis for the Ottoman Empire. In addition to economic struggle, the Ottomans were in a state of military collapse, and no trace remained of their former days of glory. At that time, Western armies were advancing in tactics and technology, while the Ottoman military system lagged. Vast territories had been lost due to constant defeats against the Russian and Austrian empires. The Ottoman state attempted several ways to save itself from this predicament; a nostalgia for a past when the state functioned more effectively led some statesmen to argue that a return to old methods of administration was necessary, yet there were also those who believed that the solution was not in looking backwards, but in moving forward.
Early Life
Mahmud's uncle, Selim III (reign 1789-1807), was one of the most reformist rulers the Ottoman Empire had seen up to that point. To reverse and thus halt the empire's decline, Selim III had implemented reforms and established a modern, European-style army, the so-called Nizam-ı Cedid, which means "new order." However, by doing so, he also provoked a fierce backlash from the Janissaries (elite troops of the Ottoman army), whose interests were harmed, as it appeared to them that they were being removed or replaced. Defenders of this old order rallied behind Kabakçı Mustafa (1770-1808), ultimately forcing him to abdicate the throne in favor of his conservative cousin, Mustafa IV (1779-1808). While Selim III was living in confinement in the palace, provincial notables (ayan), such as Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (1765-1808), marched upon Constantinople in an attempt to rescue Selim. Kabakçı, who had risen from the ranks of an ordinary soldier to occupy high state offices by having installed Mustafa IV on the throne, was captured during a sudden raid by Alemdar's troops and executed by beheading.
Alemdar intended to restore the former reformist Sultan Selim III to the Ottoman throne. As Alemdar's troops tried to breach the palace gates, Mustafa IV thought that if Selim III and 23-year-old Mahmud were killed, then there would be no alternative to ensure the continuity of the Ottoman throne, and so Alemdar's troops would not dare kill him and thus end the Ottoman bloodline. He initiated a search within the palace to locate them both while Alemdar's troops were attempting to force open the palace gates to rescue them. Time was running out.
As Alemdar's troops stormed into the palace, the executioners, acting on Mustafa IV's order, had already seized Selim III and killed him on the spot. For Mahmud, however, the situation was different. One of the palace concubines, named Cevri Kalfa, threw ash into the faces of the soldiers who were sent to kill Mahmud. This act provided Mahmud with the crucial time he needed to escape, and he managed to hide on the palace roof. Thus, Mahmud survived by the narrowest of margins. Had it not been for Cevri Kalfa, who could say how the course of history might have unfolded today?
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⇒ Mahmud II: Reformist Sultan of the Ottoman Empire