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Astronomers Reveal That WASP-18b Has Smothering Stratosphere Without cellular router vendor   Water

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A NASA-led team of scientists determined that WASP-18b, a “hot Jupiter” located 325 light-years from Earth, has a stratosphere that’s loaded with carbon monoxide, or CO, but has no signs of water.

A NASA-led team has found evidence that the oversized planet WASP-18b is wrapped in a smothering stratosphere loaded with carbon monoxide and devoid of water. The findings come from a new analysis of observations made by the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes.

The formation of a stratosphere layer in a planet’s atmosphere is attributed to “sunscreen”-like molecules, which absorb UV and visible radiation coming from the star and then release that energy as heat. The new study suggests that the “hot Jupiter” WASP-18b, a massive planet that orbits very close to its host star, remote monitoring   has an unusual composition, and the formation of this world might have been quite different from that of Jupiter as well as gas giants in other planetary systems.

“The composition of WASP-18b defies all expectations,” said Kyle Sheppard of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, lead author of the paper published in the Astrophysical Journal Letters. “We don’t know of any other extrasolar planet where carbon monoxide so completely dominates the upper atmosphere.”

On Earth, ozone absorbs UV in the stratosphere, protecting our world from a lot of the Sun’s harmful radiation. For the handful of exoplanets with stratospheres, the absorber is typically thought to be a molecule such as titanium oxide, a close relative of titanium dioxide, used on Earth as a paint pigment and sunscreen ingredient.

The researchers looked at data collected for WASP-18b, located 325 light-years from Earth, as part of a survey to find exoplanets with stratospheres. The heavyweight planet, which has the mass of 10 Jupiters, has been observed repeatedly, allowing astronomers to accumulate a relatively large trove of data. This study analyzed five eclipses from archived Hubble data and two from Spitzer.

From the light emitted by the planet’s atmosphere at infrared wavelengths, beyond the visible region, it’s possible to identify the spectral fingerprints  cost-effective industrial LTE router  of water and some other important molecules. The analysis revealed WASP-18b’s peculiar fingerprint, which doesn’t resemble any exoplanet examined so far. To determine which molecule iiot  s were most likely to match it, the team carried out extensive computer modeling.

“The only consistent explanation for the data is an overabundance of carbon monoxide and very little water vapor in the atmosphere of WASP-18b, in addition to the presence of a stratosphere,” said Nikku Madhusudhan a co-author of the study from the University of Cambridge. “This rare combination of factors opens a new window into our understanding of physicochemical processes in exoplanetary atmospheres.”

The findings indicate that WASP-18b has hot carbon monoxide in the stratosphere and cooler carbon monoxide in the layer of the atmosphere below, called the troposphere. The team determined this by detecting two types of carbon monoxide signatures, an absorption signature at a wavelength of about 1.6 micrometers and an emission signature at about 4.5 micrometers. This is the first time researchers have detected both types of fingerprints for a single type of molecule in an exoplanet’s atmosphere.

In theory, another possible fit for the observations is carbon dioxide, which has a similar fingerprint. The researchers ruled this out because if there were enough oxygen available to form carbon dioxide, the atmosphere also should have some water vapor.

To produce the spectral fingerprints seen by the team, the upper atmosphere of WASP-18b would have to be loaded with carbon monoxide. Compared to other hot Jupiters, this planet’s atmosphere likely would contain 300 times more “metals,” or elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. This extremely high metallicity would indicate WASP-18b might have accumulated greater amounts of solid ices during its formation than Jupiter, suggesting it may not have formed the way other hot Jupiters did.

“The expected launch of the James Webb Space Telescope and other future space-based observatories will give us the opportunity to follow up with even more powerful instruments and to continue exploring the amazing array of exoplanets out there,” said Avi Mandell, an exoplanet scientist at Goddard and the second author of the paper.

PDF Copy of the Paper: Evidence for a Dayside Thermal Inversion and High Metallicity for the Hot Jupiter WASP-18b

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The Diverse Causes Behind Frequen M2M router  cy Fluctuations in Power Grids

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Frequency measurements from 2015 (data: 50Hertz): the power grid frequency fluctuates around 50 Hz in the European grid and exhibits large jumps particularly in the trading intervals of 15 minutes. Usually, the grid frequency is within the yellow area but upward and downward deviations (grey) are particularly likely every 15 minutes. MPI für Dynamik und Selbstorganisation / Benjamin Schäfer

Our power grid fault location  grid works at a frequency of 50 hertz – usually generated by tur retail  bines, for example in hydro- or coal power plants, which rotate at a speed of 50 revolutions per second. “When a consumer uses more electrical energy from the power grid, the grid frequency drops slightly before an increased energy feed-in re-establishes the original frequency,” explains Benjamin Schaefer from the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization (MPIDS) in Goettingen and lead author of the study. “Deviations from the nominal value of 50 hertz must be kept to a minimum, as otherwise sensitive electrical devices could be damaged.”

Renewable energy generation also causes grid frequency fluctuations because the wind does not always blow at the same speed and clouds constantly alter the feed-in from photovoltaic systems. A frequent suggestion for integrating renewable energy generators into the power grid involves breaking the grid down into small autonomous cells known as microgrids. This would allow a community with a combined heat and power unit and its own wind and photovoltaic generators, for example, to operate its energy systems in an autonomous manner.

But what impact would this division into small cells and additional renewable ge light industrial  nerators have on the power grid? To answer this question, scientists from Forschungszentrum Juelich and MPIDS analysed the grid frequency fluctuations in power grids in different regions of the world – and using mathematical models, they predicted potential vulnerabilities and their causes.

Two surprises in one analysis

Firstly, they collated measurements from Europe, Japan, and the USA. Then, they systematically analysed the data and were surprised on two accounts. “The first surprise was that the grid showed particularly strong fluctuations every 15 minutes,” says Dirk Witthaut from Juelich’s Institute of Energy and Climate Research und the Institute for Theoretical Physics of the University of Cologne. “This is the exact time frame during which generators on the European electricity market agree on a new distribution for the electricity generated – this alters how much electricity is fed into the grid, and where. In Europe at least, power trading therefore plays a key role in balancing grid frequency fluctuations.”

The second surprise was that statistical grid fluctuations around the nominal value of 50 hertz do not follow the expected Gaussian distribution, which is a symmetrical distribution around an expected value. Instead, more extreme fluctuations are probable. Using mathematical models, the scientists calculated the expected fluctuations depending on the grid size and estimated the degree to which the fluctuations depended on renewables.

Power trading as a key factor

A comparison of the investigated regions showed that a large proportion of renewables did indeed lead to greater grid fluctuations. “For example, the share of wind and solar generation in the United Kingdom is much higher than in the USA, leading to greater fluctuations in grid frequency,” explains Dirk Witthaut. For an increased share of renewables, the scientists therefore recommend increased investment in an intelligent adjustment of generator and consumer according to the grid frequency – known as primary control and demand control.

One of the most interesting findings of the study, however, is that grid frequency fluctuation caused by power trading appeared to be more significant than fluctuation caused by renewable feed-in.

The scientists also discovered that small power grids show larger fluctuations. “Our study indicates that dividing large and thus very slow grids – such as the synchronous grid of Continental Europe – into microgrids will cause larger frequency fluctuations,” says Benjamin Schaefer. “Technically, microgrids are therefore only an option if today’s very stringent frequency standards were to be relaxed.”

Publication: Benjamin Schäfer, et al., “Non-Gaussian power grid frequency fluctuations characterized by Lévy-stable laws and superstatistics,” Nature Energy (2018) doi:10.1038/s41560-017-0058-z

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MIT Researchers Develop New Strategy for Stronge prestashop web design  r Polymers

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A team of engineers at MIT have found a new strategy for reducing the number of loops in a polymer. The method could offer an easy way for manufacturers of industrially useful materials such as plastics or gels to strengthen their materials.

Plastic, rubber, and many other useful materials are made of polymers — long chains arranged in a cross-linked network. At the molecular level, these polymer networks contain structural flaws that weaken them.

Several years ago, MI Grid Analytics System T scientists were the first to measure certain types of these defects, called “loops,” which are caused when a chain in the polymer network binds to itself instead of another chain. Now, the same team has found a simple way to reduce the number of loops in a polymer network and thus strengthen materials made from polymers.

To achieve this, the scientists simply add one of the components of the polymer network very slowly to a large quantity of the second component. Using this approach, they were able to cut the number of loops in half, in a variety of different polymer network structures. This could offer an easy way for manufacturers of industrially useful materials such as plastics or gels to strengthen their materials.

“Just by changing how fast you add one component to the other, you can improve the mechanical properties,” says Jeremiah A. Johnson, the Firmenich Career Development Associate Professor of Chemistry at MIT and the senior author of the paper.

MIT graduate student Yuwei Gu is the first author of the paper, which appears in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science.

Other authors are MIT associate professor of chemical engineering Bradley Olsen; MIT graduate student Ken Kawamoto; former MIT postdocs Mingjiang Zhong and Mao Chen; Case Western Reserve University Assistant Professor Michael Hore; Case Western Reserve graduate student Alex Jordan; and former MIT v secure web based scada  isiting professor and Case Western Reserve Associate Professor LaShanda Korley.

Controlling loops

In 2012, Johnson’s group devised the first way to measure the number of loops in a polymer network and validated those results with theoretical predictions from Olsen. The scientists found that the loops can make up about 9 percent to nearly 100 percent of the network, depending on the concentration of polymer chains in the starting material and other factors.

A few years later, Johnson and Olsen developed a way to calculate how much these loops weaken a material. In their latest work, they set out to reduce loop formation, and to achieve this without changing the composition of the materials.

“The goal we set for ourselves was to take the same set of precursors for a material that one would normally use, and, using the exa wireless networking  ct same precursors under the same conditions and at the same concentration, make a material with fewer loops,” Johnson says.

In this paper, the team first focused on a type of polymer structure known as a star polymer network. This material has two different building blocks: a star with four identical arms, known as “B4,” and a chain known as “A2.” Each molecule of A2 attaches to the end of one of the B4 arms. However, during the typical synthesis process, when everything is mixed together at once, some of the A2 chains end up binding to two of the B4 arms, forming a loop.

They found that if they added B4 very slowly to a solution of A2, each of the B4arms would quickly react with a single molecule of A2, so there was less opportunity for A2 to form loops.

After a few hours of slowly adding half of the B4 solution, they added the second half all at once, and the star-shaped subunits joined together to form a cross-linked network. This material, the researchers found, had about half as many loops as the same material produced using the traditional synthesis process.

Depending on how many loops were in the original material, this “slow then fast” strategy can improve the material’s strength by as much as 600 percent, Johnson says.

“This very simple ingenious and powerful approach, based on slow crosslinker addition, diminishes the intramolecular cyclization and significantly increases mechanical properties of polymeric networks,” says Krzysztof Matyjaszewski, a professor of chemistry at Carnegie Mellon University who was not involved in the research.

Better products

The researchers also tried this technique with four other types of polymer network synthesis reactions. They were not able to measure the number of loops for all of those types of polymers, but they did find similar improvements in the strength of the materials.

This approach could potentially help to improve the strength of any material made from a gel or other cross-linked polymer, including plastics, membranes for water purification, adhesives made of epoxy, or hydrogels such as contact lenses.

Johnson’s lab is now working on applying this strategy to a variety of materials, including gels used to grow cells for tissue engineering.

The research was funded by the National Science Foundation.

Publication: Yuwei Gu, et al., “Semibatch monomer addition as a general method to tune and enhance the mechanics of polymer networks via loop-defect control,” PNAS, 2017; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1620985114

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Exper dual sim  iment Running To Turn Light Into Matter

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The target chamber, where the laser beams are focused. Image: Imperial College London

In laser facilities in the UK, Imperial physicists are testing an 84-year-old theory which was once thought impossible to prove.

The theory of the Breit-Wheeler process says it should be possible to turn light into matter by smashing two particles of light (photons) together to create an electron and a positron. However, past attempts to do this have required the addition of other high-energy particles.

Physicists from Imperial College London, led by Professor Steven Rose, came up with a way of testing the theory that did not rely on these added extras in 2014, and today an experiment is running in the hope of turning light directly into matter for the first time.

Professor Rose said: “This would be a pure demonstration of Einstein’s famous equation that relates energy and mass: E=mc2, which tells us how much energy is produced when matter is turned to energy. What we are doing is the same but backwards: turning photon energy into mass, i.e. m=E/c2.”

A collection of experimentalists from Imperial and Jena in Germany. Image: Imperial College London

The system involves two high-power laser beams, which are being used to create the photons of light to be sm industrial wireless router ashed together. One of the photons has about 1000 times the energy of photons that produce visible light, and the other has 1,000,000,000 times the energy.

The laser beams are focused on two separate tiny targets inside a target chamber, which contains complex optics used to focus the laser beams and magnets used to deflect the charged particles. It is the charged positrons coming off the collision that the team will look for to confirm if the process was a success.

The target chamber, with optics used to focus the beams. Image: Imperial College London

The team, led by Dr Stuart Mangles and Professor Rose, looked around the world for a suitable laser system, but found the most suitable close to home: the Gemini laser at the STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory’s Central Laser Facility near Oxford.

If they are successful, they will detect positrons, but they will have to undertake a careful analysis of the data before those positrons can be confirmed as originating from the Breit-Wheeler process and not from other background processes, proving the success of turning light into matter.

At the experiment to turn light into matter. Image: Imperial College London

Dr Mangles said: “When Gregory Breit a 3g sunsetnd John Wheeler first proposed the mechanism in 1934, they used the then new theory of the interaction between light and matter known as quantum electrodynamics (QED). Whereas every other fundamental prediction of QED has since been demonstrated experimentally, the ‘two-photon Breit-Wheeler process’ has never been seen.

“If we can demonstrate it now, we would be recreating a process that was important in the first 100 seconds of the universe and that is also seen in gamma ray bursts, which are th wireless communication  e biggest explosions in the universe and one of physics’ greatest unsolved mysteries.”

Some of the detectors the team will use come from CERN, and the team are hoping to use a network of schools students to help them analyse the data through the Institute for Research in Schools, of which Professor Rose was one of the founders.

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Pre-Reptile Bunostegos  secure web based scada   Akokanensisear – Earliest Known Creature to Walk Upright on All Fours

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Bunostegos akokaensis: About the same size as a cow, this pre-reptile also stood the same way — upright with its legs underneath. It may be the earliest known creature to do so, according to a new study. Drawings: Morgan Turner

According to a new study from Brown University, the pre-reptile Bunostegos akokanensis the oldest known creature to have walked upright on all fours, roaming the ancient supercontinent of Pangea about 260-million years ago.

A newly published analysis of the bones of Bunostegos akokanensis, a 260-million-year-old pre-reptile, finds that it likely stood upright on all fours like a cow or a hippo, making it the earliest known creature to do so.

To date all of the known pareiasaurs who roved the supercontinent of Pangea in the Permian era a quarter of a billion years ago were sprawlers whose limbs would jut out from the side of the body and then continue out or slant down from the elbow (like some modern lizards). Morgan Turner, lead author of the study in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontol Remote Diagnostics  ogy, expected Bunostegos would be a sprawler, too, but the bones of the animal’s forelimbs tell a different story.

“A lot of the animals that lived around the time had a similar upright or semi-upright hind limb posture, but what’s interesting and special about Bunostegos is the forelimb, in that its anatomy is sprawling — precluding and seemingly directed underneath its body — unlike anything else at the time,” said Turner who performed the analysis under the supervision of Christian Sidor while a student at the University of Washington. Now Turner is a graduate student at Brown University. “The elements and features within the forelimb bones won’t allow a sprawling posture. That is unique.”

The findings allowed Turner, Sidor, and her co-authors to characterize how Bunostegos might have looked, standing like a cow and about the same size.

“Imagine a cow-sized, plant-eating reptile with a knobby skull and bony armor down its back,” said co-author Linda Tsuji of the Royal Ontario Museum, who discovered the fossils in Niger with Sidor and a team of paleontologists in 2003 and 2006.

Four forelimb findings

Turner examined much of the skeletons of several individuals. The findings that matter most, however, are all in the forelimbs. In particular, four observations make the case, she said, that Bunostegos stood differently than all the rest, with the legs entirely beneath t reliable  he body.

The shoulder joint (1), humerus (2), knee-like elbow hinge (3), and a longer ulna (4) together make the case that Bunostegos stood with its legs under its body.

The shoulder joint — the glenoid fossa — is facing down such that the humerus (the bone running from shoulder to elbow) would be vertically oriented underneath. It would restrict the humerus from sticking out to the side.

Meanwhile Bunostegos’ humerus is not twisted like those of sprawlers. In a sprawler, the twist is what could allow the humerus to jut out to the side at the shoulder and then orient the forearm downward from the elbow. But the humerus of Bunostegos has no twist, suggesting that the foot could actually reach the ground only if the elbow and shoulders were aligned under the body, Turner said.

The elbow joint is also telling. Unlike in sprawling pareiasaurs, which had considerable mobility at the elbow, the movement of Bunostegos’s elbow is more limited. The way the radius and ulna (forearm bones) join with the humerus forms a hinge-like joint, and wouldn’t allow for the forearm to swing out to the sides. Instead, it would only swing in a back and forth direction like a human kverizon 4g LTE routernee.

Finally, the ulna is longer than the humerus in Bunostegos, which is a common trait among non-sprawlers. “Many other sprawling four-legged animals have the reverse ratio,” Turner said.

Going back 260 million years

The idea that Bunostegos would be an outlier in terms of its posture matches well with the idea that it was somewhat of an outlier in its choice of habitat.

“Bunostegos was an isolated pareiasaur,” Turner said.

Way back when, Niger was an arid place (like some of it is today) where plants and water sources might well have been few and far between. Scientists have associated walking upright on all fours with a more energy-efficient posture than sprawling. For the long journeys between meals, Turner said, the upright posture might have been necessary for survival.

The significance of such an early example of the upright posture is that Bunostegos dates very far back on the evolutionary tree, pushing back the clock on when this posture shows up in evolution.

But Turner said she wouldn’t be surprised if other animals of the time are eventually also found to have similarities to this posture, which evolved independently in reptiles and mammals several times over the eras.

“Posture, from sprawling to upright, is not black or white, but instead is a gradient of forms,” Turner said. “There are many complexities about the evolution of posture and locomotion we are working to better understand every day. The anatomy of Bunostegos is unexpected, illuminating, and tells us we still have much to learn.”

At Brown, Turner is working in the lab of Stephen Gatesy, where she is studying a continuum of postures and locomotion in ancient creatures. In addition to Turner, Tsuji and Sidor, Oumarou Ide of the University of Niamey in Niger is an author of the study.

The National Science Foundation supported the research.

Publication: Morgan L. Turner,et al., “The vertebrate fauna of the upper Permian of Niger—IX. The appendicular skeleton of Bunostegos akokanensis (Parareptilia: Pareiasauria),” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 2015; DOI:10.1080/02724634.2014.994746

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Neanderthal Home Made of Mammoth Bones Discov lte cat 1  ered

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It was always assumed that Neanderthals were wanderers who lived in caves during harsh weather, but some new information regarding Neanderthals is challenging that way of thinking. Neanderthals may have been smarter than we think. Over the last few decades, evidence of cooking, burying their dead, making jewelry, and perhaps even speaking to one another has come to light.

Now there has been a discovery of an actual home built by Neanderthals, making it clear that they were far more advanced then we give them credit for. The home, found in the eastern Ukraine, is 26 feet across. It looks like the home  vending telemetry  was built in two parts. The base was created by assembling large mammoth bones to support the str VPN router  ucture. The bones were probably both gathered and acquired from kills.

There is also evidence that they lived in it for a long time, since 25 different hearths were found inside. cashless vendingThe house may have been topped by wood or other materials that were gathered. It is believed to be the oldest known home built of bones.

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MIT Engineers Develop a Shockwave-Based Process multi SIM LTE router   for Desalination of Water

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Researchers say the new desalination method could be useful Industrial 3G Router   for cleaning the contaminated water generated by hydraulic fracturing, or fracking. Shown here is a holding pit for fracking water.

Chemical engineers from MIT have developed an efficient shockwave-based process to treat salty, brackish or contaminated water to ma Industrial IoT Solutions  ke it usable.

As the availability of clean, potable water becomes an increasingly urgent issue in many parts of the world, researchers are searching for new ways to treat salty, brackish or contaminated water to make it usable. Now a team at MIT has come up with an innovative approach that, unlike most traditional desalination systems, does not separate ions or water molecules with filters, which can become clogged, or boiling, which consumes great amounts of energy.

Instead, the system uses an electrically driven shockwave within a stream of flowing water, which pushes salty water to one side of the flow and fresh water to the other, allowing easy separation of the two streams. The new approach is described in the journal Environmental Science and Technology Letters, in a paper by professor of chemical engineering and mathematics Martin Bazant, graduate student Sven Schlumpberger, undergraduate Nancy Lu, and former postdoc Matthew Suss.

This approach is “a fundamentally new and different separation system,” Bazant says. And unlike most other approaches to desalination or water purification, he adds, this one performs a “membraneless separation” of ions and particles.

Membranes in traditional desalination systems, such as those that use reverse osmosis or electrodialysis, are “selective barriers,” Bazant explains: They allow molecules of water to pass through, but block the larger sodium and chlorine atoms of salt. Compared to conventional electrodialysis, “This process looks similar, but it’s fundamentally different,” he says.

Diagram of the new process shows how a shockwave (red line) is generated in salty water flowing through a porous medium, with a voltage applied to membranes (green) at each side of the vessel. The shockwave pushed the salt ions off to one side of the flow, leaving fresh water at the other side, where it can be separated out.

In the new process, called shock electrodialysis, water flows through a porous material —in this case, made of tiny glass particles, called a frit — with membranes or electrodes sandwiching the porous material on each side. When an electric current flows through the system, the salty water divides into regions where the salt concentration is either depleted or enriched. When that current is increased to a certain point, it generates a shockwave between these two zones, sharply dividing the streams and allowing the fresh and salty regions to be separated by a simple physical barrier at the center of the flow.

“It generates a very strong gradient,” Bazant says.

Even though the system can use membranes on each side of the porous material, Bazant explains, the water flows across those membranes, not through them. That means they are not as vulnerable to fouling — a buildup of filtered material — or to degradation due to water pressure, as happens with conventional membrane-based desalination, including conventional electrodialysis. “The salt doesn’t have to push through something,” Bazant says. The charged salt particles, or ions, “just move to one side,” he says.

The underlying phenomenon of generating a shockwave of salt concentration was discovered a few years ago by the group of Juan Santiago at Stanford University. But that finding, which involved experiments with a tiny microfluidic device and no flowing water, was not used to remove salt from the water, says Bazant, who is currently on sabbatical at Stanford.

The new system, by contrast, is a continuous process, using water flowing through cheap porous media, that should be relatively easy to scale up for desalination or water purification. “The breakthrough here is the engine industrial cellular modem  ering [of a practical system],” Bazant says.

One possible application would be in cleaning the vast amounts of wastewater generated by hydraulic fracturing, or fracking. This contaminated water tends to be salty, sometimes with trace amounts of toxic ions, so finding a practical and inexpensive way of cleaning it would be highly desirable. This system not only removes salt, but also a wide variety of other contaminants — and because of the electrical current passing through, it may also sterilize the stream. “The electric fields are pretty high, so we may be able to kill the bacteria,” Schlumpberger says.

The research produced both a laboratory demonstration of the process in action and a theoretical analysis that explains why the process works, Bazant says. The next step is to design a scaled-up system that could go through practical testing.

Initially at least, this process would not be competitive with methods such as reverse osmosis for large-scale seawater desalination. But it could find other uses in the cleanup of contaminated water, Schlumpberger says.

Unlike some other approaches to desalination, he adds, this one requires little infrastructure, so it might be useful for portable systems for use in remote locations, or for emergencies where water supplies are disrupted by storms or earthquakes.

Maarten Biesheuvel, a principal scientist at the Netherlands Water Technology Institute who was not involved in this research, says the work “is of very high significance to the field of water desalination. It opens up a whole range of new possibilities for water desalination, both for seawater and brackish water resources, such as groundwater.”

Biesheuvel adds that this team “shows a radically new design where within one and the same channel ions are separated between different regions. … I expect that this discovery will become a big ‘hit’ in the academic field. … It will be interesting to see whether the upscaling of this technology, from a single cell to a stack of thousands of cells, can be achieved without undue problems.”

The research was supported by the MIT Energy Initiative, Weatherford International, the USA-Israel Binational Science Foundation, and the SUTD-MIT Graduate Fellows Program.

Publication: Sven Schlumpberger, et al., “Scalable and Continuous Water Deionization by Shock Electrodialysis,” Environmental Science and Technology Letters, 2015; DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.5b00303

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New 3D Printing Technique automation   Enables Cheaper Patient-Specific Medical Research

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With the new 3-D technology, extraneous tissues can be removed to reveal the desired underlying structures (right) without sacrificing the resolution or intensity gradients present in the native imaging data (left and center). Credit: James Weaver and Steven Keating/Wyss Institute

New 3-D printing technique enables faster, better, and cheaper models of patient-specific medical  industrial cellular modem  data for research and diagnosis.

What if you could hold a physical model of your own brain, accurate down to its every unique fold? That’s just a normal part of life for Steven Keating, who had a baseball-sized tumor removed from his brain at age 26 while he was a graduate student in the MIT Media Lab’s Mediated Matter group.

Curious to see what his brain looked like before the tumor was removed, and with the goal of better understanding his diagnosis and treatment options, Keating collected his medical data and began 3-D printing his MRI and CT scans. He found the existing models prohibitively time-intensive and cumbersome, and said they failed to accurately reveal important features of interest. So Keating reached out to some of his group’s collaborators, including members of the Wyss Institute at Harvard University, who were exploring a new method for 3-D printing biological samples.

“It never occurred to us to use this approach for human anatomy until Steve came to us and said, ‘Guys, here’s my data, what can we do?’” said Ahmed Hosny, who was a research fellow with the Wyss Institute at the time and is now a machine learning engineer at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute.

The result of that impromptu collaboration is a new technique that allows images from MRI, CT, and other medical scans to be converted easily and quickly into physical models with unprecedented detail.

The collaborators included James Weaver, senior research scientist at the Wyss Institute; Neri Oxman, director of the MIT Media Lab’s Mediated Matter group and associate professor of media arts and sciences; and a team of researchers and physicians at several other academic and medical centers in the U.S. and Germany. The research is reported in the journal 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing.

A 3-D-printed foot model (left) and its cross section (right) clearly reveal the intricate internal architecture of the different bone types, as well as the surrounding soft tissue. Credit: Steven Keating and Ahmed Hosny/Wyss Institute

“I nearly jumped out of my chair when I saw what this technology is able to do,” said Beth Ripley, an assistant professor of radiology at the University of Washington and clinical radiologist at the Seattle VA, and co-author of the paper. “It creates exquisitely detailed 3-D-printed medical models with a fraction of the manual labor currently required, making 3-D printing more accessible to the medical field as a tool for research and diagnosis.”

Imaging technologies like MRI and CT scans produce high-resolution images as a series of “slices” that reveal the details of structures inside the human body, making them invaluable for evaluating and diagnosing medical conditions. Most 3-D printers build physical models in a layer-by-layer process, so feeding them layers of medical images to create a solid structure is an obvious synergy between the two technologies.

However, there is a problem: MRI and CT scans produce images with so much detail that the object(s) of interest need to be isolated from surrounding tissue and converted into surface meshes in order to be printed. This is achieved via either a very time-intensive process called “segmentation,” in which a radiologist manually traces the desired object on every single image slice (sometimes hundreds of images for a single sample), or an automatic “thresholding” process in which a computer program quickly converts areas that contain grayscale pixels into solid black or solid white pixels, based on a shade of gray that is chosen as the threshold between the colors. However, medical imaging data sets often contain objects that are irregularly shaped and lack clear, well-defined borders; as a result, auto-thresholding (or even manual segmentation) often exaggerates or understates the size of a feature of interest and washes out critical detail.

A 3-D-printed multi-material model of a calcified heart valve shows hard calcium deposits (white) with fine-scale gradients in mineral density that are impossible to fully capture using conventional biomedical 3-D printing approaches. Credit: James Weaver and Ahmed Hosny/Wyss Institute

The new method described in the paper gives medical professionals the best of both worlds: a fast and highly accurate method for converting complex images into a format that can easily be 3-D printed. The key lies in printing with dithered bitmaps, a digital file format in which each pixel of a grayscale image is converted into a series of black and white pixels, and the density of the black pixels is what defines the shades of gray, rather than the pixels themselves varying in color.

Similar to the way images in black-and-white newsprint use varying sizes of black ink dots to convey shading, the more black pixels that are present in a given area, the darker it appears. By simplifying all pixels from various shades of gray into a mixture of black or white pixels, dithered bitmaps allow a 3-D printer to print complex medical images using two different materials that preserve all the subtle variations of the original data with much greater accuracy and speed.

Unlike grayscale photographs, which require several shades of gray to convey gradients (left), halftones grid LTE router   (common in newsprint images) can preserve grayscale intensity gradients using only a single color of ink (right). A similar approach was used for processing the image stacks for the 3-D printed models described in the paper. Credit: James Weaver/Wyss Institute

The team of researchers used bitmap-based 3-D printing to create models of Keating’s brain and tumor that faithfully preserved all the gradations of detail present in the raw MRI data down to a resolution that is on par with what the human eye can distinguish from about 9‒10 inches away. Using this same approach, they were also able to print a variable stiffness model of a human heart valve using different materials for the valve tissue and the mineral plaques that had formed within it, resulting in a model that exhibited mechanical industrial l2tp cellular routerproperty gradients and provided new insights into the plaque’s actual effects on valve function.

“Our approach not only allows for high levels of detail to be preserved and printed into medical models, but it also saves a tremendous amount of time and money,” said Weaver, who is the corresponding author of the paper. “Manually segmenting a CT scan of a healthy human foot, with all its internal bone structure, bone marrow, tendons, muscles, soft tissue, and skin, for example, can take more than 30 hours, even by a trained professional — we were able to do it in less than an hour.”

The researchers hope that their method will help make 3-D printing a more viable tool for routine exams and diagnoses, patient education, and understanding the human body. “Right now, it’s just too expensive for hospitals to employ a team of specialists to go in and hand-segment image data sets for 3-D printing, except in extremely high-risk or high-profile cases. We’re hoping to change that,” said Hosny.

Keating, who has become a passionate advocate of efforts to enable patients to access their own medical data, still 3-D prints his MRI scans to see how his skull is healing and check on his brain to make sure his tumor isn’t coming back. “The ability to understand what’s happening inside of you, to actually hold it in your hands and see the effects of treatment, is incredibly empowering,” he said.

Paper: Hosny Ahmed, et al., “From Improved Diagnostics to Presurgical Planning: High-Resolution Functionally Graded Multimaterial 3D Printing of Biomedical Tomographic Data Sets,” 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing, 2018; doi:10.1089/3dp.2017.0140

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