#remote-secure-networks

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Yale Engineers Develop Hybrid System for Quantum Commun vending inventory management  ication

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Using microwaves and magnets, researchers at the Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science developed a hybrid system for quantum communication.

Yale engineers have developed a hybrid system that strongly couples magnons—the smallest unit of measurement for a magnetic spin excitation—with microwave photons. According to the researchers, the hybrid system achieved an ultrahigh coherence  router industrial  between the two platforms that makes the system suitable for storing and transferring information.

“Magnons, because they can interact with many different information carriers, can be an ideal bridge to platforms as diverse as microwaves, light waves, and acoustic waves,” says Hong Tang, associate professor of electrical engineering, physics & applied physics and principal investigator of the research published October 7 in Physical Review Letters. “This ability makes magnons a promising new platform for quantum communication and possibly for the development of a quantum computer.”

The Yale team’s hybrid system utilized a small sphere made of yttrium iron garnet (YIG)—a magnetic insulator that has very low magnon attenuation—placed inside a microwave cavity. The geometry of both the YIG sphere and the cavity resulted in uniform coupling between the microwave photons and magnons, and at a higher quality than previous experiments that used YIG thin films. The coupling was in fact so strong that information carried by the microwave signal can be written to or read from the magnon five billion times per second; such a processing speed allowed the information stored in a single magnon to be accessed 10,000 times before its energy was dissipated and the information lost.

In addition to the ultrahigh coherence and ultrastrong coupling between the magnons and microwave photons, the researchers also argue for further magnon use because of the platform’s high tunability and nonlinearity; these two attributes enable the platform to flexibly couple with other platforms.

“Nonlinearity is also crucial because it enables not only integration with other platforms, but also more complex manipulations to the information signal itself, such as one magnon being split into two magnons, each with half the energy of the original magnon, or perhaps two identical magnons being converted into two magnons with different frequencies,” says Xufeng Zhang, a Yale engineering doctoral student and lead author of the paper. “Our next step is to explore such nonlinear processes. With these linear and nonlinear properties, magnons become a very promising candidate as carriers for information processing and communication.”

Other authors of the article include Chang-Ling Zou and Liang Jiang. The article is titled “Strongly Coupled Magnons and Cavity Microwave Photons.”

Publication: Xufeng Zhang, et al., “Strongly Coupled Magnons and Cavity Microwave Photons,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 156401, 2014; do iot  i:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.156401

PDFcashless vending Copy of the Study: Strongly coupled magnons and cavity microwave photons

Image: Yale University

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Physicists Hunt  remote secure networking  for Nitrogen Containing Molecules in Space

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Interstellar clouds in the constellation of Sagittarius, a region in the centre of the Milkyway in which astrophysicists have suggested the amide ion may be found. (Credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester (ASU))

Physicist Remote PLC connections at the University of Innsbruck are on the hunt for nitrogen containing molecules in space. Using terahertz spectroscopy, they directly measured two spectral lines for one particular molecule for the first time. The discovered frequencies are characteristic of the amide ion, a negatively charged nitrogen molecule.

In 2014, astrophysicists discovered a spectral line in observational data from the Herschel Space Telescope and tentatively assigned it to the amide ion. It would have been the first proof of the existence of this molecule in space. Physicists within the group of Roland Wester from the Institute of Ion Physics and Applied Physics at the University of Innsbruck have now shown this assumption to be incorrect.

Image: Innsbruck physicists confined amide ions in this ion trap and investigated their behaviour under the influence of terahertz radiation. (Credit: Uni Innsbruck)

Characteristic frequencies

In addition to stars, galaxies are populated by regions that contain gigantic dust and gas clouds. Such regions, making up the interstellar medium (ISM), act as the birthplace for new stars which form when the clouds collapse under their own gravity and reach sufficient densities for fusion reactions to occur. In order to better understand these processes, it is important to know exactly the chemical composition of the ISM which is most often determined via the frequencies (spectral lines) measured by radio telescopes.

In the case of the amide ion, the team led by Roland Wester has measured two previously unknown frequencies in the laboratory for the first time. The adopted method, known as terahertz spectroscopy, has allowed the lines to be determined a hundred times more accurately than was previously possible. “In this technique, wavelengths between microwaves and infrared light are used,” explains the physicist. “This allows the rotation of very small molecules to be studied. For larger molecules, vibrations of whole molecular groups can be determined.”

In a project funded by the European Research Council ERC, the group of Roland Wester has developed a method by which molecules confined in ion traps are excited with terahertz radiation. “The amide ion consists of a nitrogen atom and two hydrogen atoms, looks just like water and behaves very similar in terms of quantum mechanics,” says Olga Lakhmanskaya from Roland Wester’s team. “For the first time, we directly measured the elementary excitation of the rotation of this molecule.” The proof also came about thanks to a close collaboration with the theoretician Viatcheslav Kokoou Remote Maintenance  line of the University of Central Florida, who was a visiting professor at the University of Innsbruck for a semester.

Tentative assignment disproved

The physicists from Innsbruck have now been able to show that the previously measured spectral line cannot be produced by amide ions by comparison with the data obtained from the Herschel Space Telescope. “We were able to show, with our measurements, that this tentative assignment is not correct,” stresses Roland Wester. In the Universe one can find various nitrogen molecules such as ammonia but, according to the Innsbruck experiments, it remains to be shown that the amide ion is also present. The second spectral line determined by the physicists however could assist in searching for this species in space. “We hope that in the future, with new telescopes, this line can be observed leading to its detection in space.” Wester’s team now wants to apply the new method to molecules with four or five atoms, wherecellular modem ethernet vibrations and rotations are much more complex than with the triatomic amide.

Publication: Olga Lakhmanskaya, et al., “Rotational Spectroscopy of a Triatomic Molecular Anion,” Physical Review Letters, 201; doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.120.253003

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Giant Oligocene Ka industrial l2tp cellular router  iruku Penguins Stood Nearly Five Feet Tall

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Paleontologists have reconstructed a model of the Kairuku penguin that stood almost 4 feet 6 inches in height in what’s now New Zealand. The Kairuku penguin lived approximately 25 million years ago, in the Oligocene epoch, i Vending Telemetry  n the Chattian age.

The Oligocene is often viewed by paleontologists as a time of transition, between the archaic world of the tropical Eocene and the modern Miocene. The major changes during the Oligocene included a global expansion of grasslands and the regression of tropical board leafed forests to the equatorial belt. The start of the Oligocene is marked by the Eocene-Oligoscene extinction event that is also known as the Grande Coupure, which was marked by large-scale extinction and floral and faunal turnover, from European to Asian. The Oligocene-Miocene boundary is not easily identified worldwide, but it can be seen in regional boundaries.

The Kairuku, a Maori word that stands for diver who returns with food, was reconstructed from fossilized bones that were collected in 1977 by Ewan Fordyce, a paleontologist from the University of Otago, in New Zealand.

Dan Ksepka, from North Carolina State University, wa Dual SIM M2M router s first interested by the bones because of the unusual shape of the body that they suggested. The Kairuku was an elegant bird, with a slender body, long flippers, and short, thick legs and feet. The unusual shape would have made the reconstruction stand six feet tall, if they would have used an extrapolation based upon the length of the flippers.

industrial m2m

The reconstruction was built using two separate fossils and the skeleton of an existing king penguin. The Kairuku would have been the largest of the five species that lived in New Zealand during the Oligocene. The results of the research were published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.

[via Wired UK]

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Ancient DNA Reveals the First Detailed Genetic History of Moder inhand  n Europe

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An international team of researchers used ancient DNA to reconstruct the first high-resolution genetic record of modern European lineages through time, observing both human DNA evolving in ‘real-time’ and the dramatic population changes that have taken place in Europe.

Ancient DNA recovered from a series of skeletons in central Germany up to 7500 years old has been used to reconstruct the first detailed genetic history of modern Europe.

The study, published today in Nature Communications, reveals a dramatic series of events including major migrations from both Western Europe and Eurasia, and signs of an unexplained genetic turnover about 4000-5000 years ago.

The research was performed at the University of Adelaide’s Australian Centre for Ancient DNA (ACAD). Researchers used DNA extracted from bone and teeth samples from prehistoric human skeletons to sequence a group of maternal genetic lineages that are now carried by up to 45% of Europeans.

The international team also included the University of Mainz in Germany and the National Geographic Society’s Genographic Project.

“This is the first high-resolution genetic record of these lineages through time, and it is fascinating that we can directly observe both human DNA evolving in ‘real-time’, and the dramatic population changes that have taken place in Europe,” says joint lead author Dr Wolfgang Haak of ACAD.

“We can follow over 4000 years of prehistory, from the earliest farmers through the early Bronze Age to modern times.”

“The record of this maternally inherited genetic group, called Haplogroup H, shows that the first farmers in Central Europe resulted from a wholesale cultural and genetic input via migration, beginning in Turkey and the Near East where farming originated and arriving in Germany around 7500 years ago,” says joint lead author Dr Paul Brotherton, formerly at ACAD and now at the University of Huddersfield, UK.

ACAD Director Professor Alan Cooper says: “What is intriguing is that the genetic markcellular router wifiers of this first pan-European culture, which was clearly very successful, were then suddenly replaced around 4500 years ago, and we don’t know why. Something major happened, and the hunt is now on to find out what that was.”

The team developed new advances in molecular biology to sequence entire mitochon industrial IoT Gateway  drial genomes from the ancient skeletons. This is the first ancient population study using a large number of mitochondrial genomes.

“We have established that the genetic foundations for modern Europe were only established in the Mid-Neolithic, after this major genetic transition around 4000 years ago,” says Dr Haak. “This genetic diversity was then modified further by a series of incoming and expanding cultures from Iberia and Eastern Europe through the Late Neolithic.”

“The expansion of the Bell Beaker culture (named after their pots) appears to have been a key event, emerging in Iberia around 2800 BC and arriving in Germany several centuries later,” says Dr Brotherton. “This is a very interesting group as they have been linked to the expansion of Celtic languages along the Atlantic coast and into central Europe.”

“These well-dated ancient genetic sequences provide a unique opportunity to investigate the demographic history of Europe,” says Professor Cooper.

“We can not only estimate population sizes but also accurately determine the evolutionary rate of the sequences, providing a far more accurate timescale of significant events in recent human evolution.”

The team has been working closely on the genetic prehistory of Europeans for the past 7-8 years.

Professor Kurt Alt (University of Mainz) says: “This work shows the power of archaeology and ancient DNA working together to reconstruct human evolutionary history through time. We are currently expanding this approach to other transects across Europe.”

Genographic Project director Spencer Wells says: “Studies such as this on ancient remains serve as a valuable adjunct to the work we are doing with modern populations in the Genographic Project. While the DNA of people alive today can reveal the end result of their ancestors’ ancient movements, to really understand the dynamics of how modern genetic patterns were created we nee compact industrial router d to study ancient material as well.”

Publication: Paul Brotherton, et al., “Neolithic mitochondrial haplogroup H genomes and the genetic origins of Europeans,” 2013, Nature Communications 4, Article number: 1764; doi:10.1038/ncomms2656

Image: Digital Illustration of DNA from Shutterstock

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

“TFIID” Can Co-Exist in Two Distinct Structural  MV sensor  States

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The “rearranged” state of the lobe A (yellow) of the horseshoe-like TFIID transcription factor enables TFIID to bind with DNA (green) and start the process by which DNA is copied into RNA.

Using single-particle cryo-electron microscopy, a team of scientists from the Berkeley Lab have shown that the transcription factor known as “TFIID” can co-exist in two distinct structural states.

The enormously diverse complexity seen amongst individual species within the animal kingdom evolved from a surprisingly small gene pool. For example, mice effectively serve as medical research models because humans and mice share 80-percent of the same protein-coding genes. The key to morphological and behavioral complexity, a growing body of scientific evidence suggests, is the regulation of gene expression by a family of DNA-binding proteins called “transcription factors.” Now, a team of researchers with the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) and the University of California (UC) Berkeley has discovered the secret behind how one these critical transcription factors is able to perform – a split personality.

Using a technique called single-particle cryo-electron microscopy, the team, which was led by biophysicist Eva Nogales, showed that the transcription factor known as “TFIID” can co-exist in two distinct structural states. These two states – the canonical and the rearranged – differ only in the translocation of a single substructural element – known as lobe A – by 100 angstroms (an atom of hydrogen is about one angstrom in diameter). This structural shift enables initiation of the transcription proceLine Monitoringss by which the genetic message of DNA is copied to RNA for the eventual production of proteins.

“TFIID by itself fluctuates between the canonical and rearranged states,” Nogales says. “When TFIID becomes bound to another transcription factor, TFIIA, it intelligent traffic enforcement   shifts mostly to the canonical state, but in the presence of both TFIIA and DNA, the TFIID shifts to the rearranged state, which enables recognition and binding to key DNA sequences and marks the start of the transcriptional process.”

Understanding the reorganization of TFIID and its role in transcription provides new insight into the regulation of gene expression, Nogales says, a process critical to the growth, development, health and survival of all organisms.

Nogales is a leading authority on electron microscopy and holds joint appointments with Berkeley Lab, the University of California (UC) at Berkeley, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI). She is the corresponding author of a paper describing this research in the journal Cell, titled “Human TFIID Binds to Core Promoter DNA in a Reorganized Structural State.” Co-authors are Michael Cianfrocco, George Kassavetis, Patricia Grob, Jie Fang, Tamar Juven-Gershon and James Kadonaga.

The growing number of organisms whose genomes have been sequenced and made available for comparative analyses shows that the total number of genes in an organism’s genome is no measure of its complexity. The fruit fly, Drosophila, for example, is far more complex than the nematode worm, Caenorhabditis elegans, but has about 6,000 fewer genes than the worm’s 20,000. The total number of human genes is estimated to fall somewhere between 30,000 and 40,000. By comparison, the expression of the genes of both the fruit fly and the nematode are regulated through about 1,000 transcription factors, whereas the human genome boasts approximately 3,000 transcription factors. That multiple transcription factors often act in various combinations with one another creates even more evolutionary roads to organism complexity.

“Although the number of protein coding genes has remained fairly constant throughout metazoan evolution, the number of regulatory DNA elements has increased dramatically,” Nogales says. “Our discovery of the existence of two structurally and functionally distinct forms of TFIID suggests a potential molecular mechanism by which a combination of transcription factors can tune the  remote monitoring  expression level of genes and thereby give rise to a diversity of outcomes.”

Despite its critical role in transcription, high-resolution structural information of TFIID has been restricted to crystal structures of a handful of protein subunits and domains. Nogales and her colleagues are the first group to obtain three-dimensional visualization of human TFIID that is bound to DNA. The single-particle cryo-electron microscopy technique they employed records a series of two-dimensional images of an individual molecules or macromolecular complexes frozen in random orientations, then computationally combines these images into high-resolution 3D reconstructions.

“Through cryo-EM and extensive image-sorting, we found that TFIID exhibits a surprising degree of flexibility, moving its lobe A, a region that covers approximately one-third of the complex, by 100 angstroms across its central channel,” says Cianfrocco, lead author of the Cell paper. “This movement of the lobe A is absolutely essential for TFIID to bind to DNA.”

The TFIID transcription factor protein co-exists in two states – canonical, in which the lobe A is connected to the lobe C, and rearranged, in which the lobe A is connected to the lobe B. Only in the rearranged state does TFIID bind to DNA. (Image courtesy of Nogales, et. al)

Nogales says that while many macromolecular complexes are known to be flexible, this typically involves the limited movement of a small region within the complex, or some tiny motion of the entire complex. The movement of TFIID’s lobe A represents an entire restructuring that dramatically alters what the molecule can do. In the canonical state, TFIID’s lobe A is bound to its lobe C, which appears to be the preferred form of free TFIID. In the rearranged state, TFIID’s lobe A is bound to its lobe B, which is the state in which it can then strongly bind to DNA promoters.

“The TFIIA molecule serves as the mediator for this transition, maintaining TFIID in the canonical state in the absence of DNA and initiating the formation of the rearranged state in the presence of promoter DNA,” Cianfrocco says. “Without the presence of TFIIA, the binding of TFIID to DNA is very weak.”

Nogales and her colleagues are now studying how TFIID, once it is bound to DNA, recruits the rest of the machinery required to transcribe the genetic message into RNA.

“Our new work will involve constructing a macromolecular complex that is well over two million Daltons in size, which is about the size of a bacterial ribosome,” Nogales says. “The size and relative instability of our complex will represent a major experimental challenge.”

This work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health and the Human Frontier in Science Program in Strasbourg, Germany, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Images: Nogales, et. al

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

Research Reveals ‘Speed Limit’ for Electrical Switchi m2m communication  ng in Magnetite

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An optical laser pulse (red streak from upper right) shatters the ordered electronic structure (blue) in an insulating sample of magnetite, switching the material to electrically conducting (red) in one trillionth of a second. Greg Stewart/SLAC

New research from the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory reveals for the first time the ‘speed limit’ for electrical switching in magnetite.

Menlo Park, California — Researchers from the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory have clocked the fastest-possible electrical switching in magnetite, a naturally magnetic mineral. Their results could drive innovations in the tiny transistors that control the flow of electricity across silicon chips, enabling faster, more powerful computing devices.

Scientists using SLAC’s Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) X-ray laser found that it takes only 1 trillionth of a second to flip the on-off electrical switch in samples of magnetite, which is thousands of times faster than in transistors now in use. The results were published July 28 in Nature Materials.

“This breakthrough research reveals for the first time the ‘speed limit’ for electrical switching in this material,” said Roopali Kukreja, a materials science researcher at SLAC and Stanford University who is a lead author of the study.

The LCLS experiment also showed researchers how the electronic structure of the sample rearranged into non-conducting “islands” surrounded by electrically conducting regions, which began to form just hundreds of quadrillionths of a second after a laser pulse struck the sample. The study shows how such conducting and non-conducting states can coexist and create electrical pathways in next-generation transistors.

In its insulating state, the magnetite sample has electrical charges locked into structures known as “trimerons” that are composed of three iron atoms (a). An optical laser pulse was used to fracture trimerons (b), creating strands of electrical conductivity (red) surrounding islands of non-conducting trimeron structures (c). S. de Jong et al./Nature Materials

Scientis m2m iot  ts first hit each sample with a visible-light laser, which fragmented the material’s electronic structure at an atomic scale, rearranging it to form the islands. The laser blast was followed closely by an ultrabright, ultrashort X-ray pulse that allowed researchers to study, for the first time, the timing and details of changes in the sample excited by the initial laser strike.

By slightly adjusting the interval of the X-ray pulses, they precisely measured how long it took the material to shift from a non-conducting to an electrically conducting state, and observed the structural changes during this switch.

Scientists had worked for decades to resolve this electrical structure at the atomic level, and just last year another research team had identified its building blocks as “trimerons” – formed by three iron atoms that lock in the charges. That finding provided key insights in interpreting results from the LCLS experiment.

The magnetite had to be cooled to minus 190 degrees Celsius to lock its electrical charges in place, so the next step is to study more complex materials and room-temperature applications, Kukreja said. Future experiments will aim to identify exotic compounds and test new techniques to induce the switching and tap into other properties that are superior to modern-day silicon transistors. The researchers have already conducted follow-up studies focusing on a hybrid material that exhibits similar ultrafast switching properties at near room temperature, which makes it a better candidate for commercial use than magnetite.

Hermann Dürr, the principal investigator of the LCLS experiment and senior staff scientist for the Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences (SIMES), said there is a major global effort underway to go beyond modern semiconductor transistors using new materials to satisfy demands for smaller and faster computers, and LCLS has the unique ability to home in on processes that occur at the scale of atoms in trillionths and quadrillionths of a second.

While magnetite’s basic magnetic properties have been known for thousands of years, the experiment shows how much still can be learned about the more exotic electronic properties of magnetite and other more complex materials using LCLS, Dürr said.

Other collab Transformer Monitoring  orating scientists on this research were from Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin for Materials and Energy; Hamburg University/Center for Free Electron Laser Science (CFEL); University of Amsterdam; the T-REX laboratory at the ELETTRA-Sincrotrone Trieste and University of Trieste; Cologne, Potsdam Regensburg and Purdue universities; the Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; and SwissFEL.

Research at Stanford University was supported through SIMES and LCLS by the DOE Office of Science. Portions of this research were carried out on the Soft X-ray (SXR) instrument at the LCLS, a user facility operated by Stanford University for t industrial LTE router he DOE. SXR is funded by a consortium including LCLS, Stanford, Berkeley Lab, CFEL, University of Hamburg and several other research organizations in Europe.

Publication: S. de Jong, et al., “Speed limit of the insulator–metal transition in magnetite,” Nature Materials, (2013); doi:10.1038/nmat3718

Images: Greg Stewart/SLAC; S. de Jong et al./Nature Materials

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

National GH m2m vpn  G 2010 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data

www.inhandnetworks.com

The 2010 GHG data was released today and for the first time data from large facilities is easily accessible to the public. The GHG report has data on over 6,700 facilities that can be sorted and viewed by facility, location, industrial sector, and the type of GHG emitted when using the EPA’s online publication tool.

WASHINGTON – For the first time, comprehensive greenhouse gas (GHG) data reported directly from large facilities and suppliers across the country are now easily accessible to the public through EPA’s GHG Reporting Program. The 2010 GHG data released today includes public information from facilities in nine industry groups that directly emit large quantities of GHGs, as well as suppliers of certain fossil fuels.

“Thanks to strong collaboration and feedback from industry, states and other organizations, today we have a transparent, powerful data resource available to the public,” said Gina McCarthy, assistant administrator for EPA’s Office of Air and Radiation. “The GHG Reporting Program data provides a critical tool for businesses and other innovators to find cost- and fuel-saving efficiencies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and foster technologies to protect public health and the environment.”

EPA’s online data publication tool allows use cellular router  rs to view and sort GHG data for calendar year 2010 from over 6,700 facilities in a variety of ways—including by facility, location, industrial sector, and the type of GHG emitted. This information can be used by communities to identify nearby sources of GHGs, help businesses compare and track emissions, and provide information to state and local governments.

GHG data for direct DIN-Rail router   emitters show that in 2010:

•Power plants were the largest stationary sources of direct emissions with 2,324 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (mmtCO2e), followed by petroleum refineries with emissions of 183 mmtCO2e.

•CO2 accounted for the largest share of direct GHG emissions with 95 percent, followed by methane with 4 percent, and nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases accounting for the remaining 1 percent.

•100 facilities each reported emissions over 7 mmtCO2e, including 96 power plants, two iron and steel mills and two refineries.

Mandated by the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act, EPA launched the GHG Reporting Program in October 2009, requiring the reporting of GHG data from large emission sources across a range of industry sectors, as well as suppliers of products that would emit GHGs if released or combusted. Most reporting entities submitted data for calendar year 2010. However, an additional 12 source categories will begin reporting t remote connectivity  heir 2011 GHG data this year.

Access EPA’s GHG Reporting Program Data and Data Publication Tool.

Image: EPA

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

New Calculations Challenge Assumptio Industrial 3G Router  ns about Rigid Lithosphere

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A map produced by scientists at the University of Nevada, Reno, and Rice University shows predicted velocities for sectors of the Pacific tectonic plate relative to points near the Pacific-Antarctic ridge, which lies in the South Pacific ocean. The researchers show the Pacific plate is contracting as younger sections of the lithosphere cool. Credit: Corné Kreemer and Richard Gordon

A newly published study from geophysicists Rice University and the University of Nevada challenge assumptions about a rigid lithosphere, revealing that the Pacific plate is shrinking as it cools.

Houston – The tectonic plate that dominates the Pacific “Ring of Fire” is not as rigid as many scientists assume, according to researchers at Rice University and the University of Nevada.

Rice geophysicist Richard Gordon and his colleague, Corné Kreemer, an associate professor at the University of Nevada, Reno, ha Industrial IoT Gateway  ve determined that cooling of the lithosphere — the outermost layer of Earth — makes some sections of the Pacific plate contract horizontally at faster rates than others and cause the plate to deform.

Gordon said the effect detailed this month in Geology is most pronounced in the youngest parts of the lithosphere — about 2 million years old or less — that make up some the Pacific Ocean’s floor. They predict the rate of contraction to be 10 times faster than older parts of the plate that were created about 20 million years ago and 80 times faster than very old parts of the plate that were created about 160 million years ago.

The tectonic plates that cover Earth’s surface, including both land and seafloor, are in constant motion; they imperceptibly surf the viscous mantle below. Over time, the plates scrape against and collide into each other, forming mountains, trenches and other geological features.

On the local scale, these movements cover only inches per year and are hard to see. The same goes for deformations of the type described in the new paper, but when summed over an area the size of the Pacific plate, they become statistically significant, Gordon said.

The new calculations showed the Pacific plate is pulling away from the North American plate a little more — approximately 2 millimeters a year — than the rigid-plate theory would account for, he said. Overall, the plate is moving northwest about 50 millimeters a year.

“The central assumption in plate tectonics is that the plates are rigid, but the studies that my colleagues and I have been doing for the past few decades show that this central assumption is merely an approximation — that is, the plates are not rigid,” Gordon said. “Our latest contribution is to specify or predict the nature and rate of deformation over the entire Pacific plate.”

The researchers already suspected cooling had a role from their observation that the 25 large and small plates that make up Earth’s shell do not fit together as well as the “rigid model” assumption would have it. They also knew that lithosphere as young as 2 million years was more malleable than hardened lithosphere as old as 170 million years.

“We first showed five years ago that the rate of horizontal contraction is inversely proportional to the age of the seafloor,” he said. “So it’s in the youngest lithosphere (toward the east side of the Pacific plate) where you get the biggest effects.”

The researchers saw hints of deformation in a metric called plate circuit closure, which describes the relative motions where at least three plates meet. If the plates were rigid, their angular velocities at the triple junction would have a sum of zero. But where the Pacific, Nazca and Cocos plates meet west of the Galápagos Islands, the nonclosure velocity is 14 millimeters a year, enough to suggest that all three plates are deforming.

“When we did our first global model in 1990, we said to ourselves that maybe when we get new data, this issue will go away,Power Fault Detection” Gordon said. “But when we updated our model a few years ago, all the places that didn’t have plate circuit closure 20 years ago still didn’t have it.”

There had to be a reason, and it began to become clear when Gordon and his colleagues looked beneath the seafloor. “It’s long been understood that the ocean floor increases in depth with age due to cooling and thermal contraction. But if something cools, it doesn’t just cool in one direction. It’s going to be at least approximately isotropic. It should shrink the same in all directions, not just vertically,” he said.

A previous study by Gordon and former Rice graduate student Ravi Kumar calculated the effect of thermal contraction on vertical columns of oceanic lithosphere and determined its impact on the horizontal plane, but viewing the plate as a whole demanded a different approach. “We thought about the vertically integrated properties of the lithosphere, but once we did that, we realized Earth’s surface is still a two-dimensional problem,” he said.

For the new study, Gordon and Kreemer started by determining how much the contractions would, on average, strain the horizontal surface. They divided the Pacific plate into a grid and calculated the strain on each of the nearly 198,000 squares based on their age, as determined by the seafloor age model published by the National Geophysical Data Center.

“That we could calculate on a laptop,” Gordon said. &ldquo goose-messaging-  ;If we tried to do it in three dimensions, it would take a high-powered computer cluster.”

The surface calculations were enough to show likely strain fields across the Pacific plate that, when summed, accounted for the deformation. As further proof, the distribution of recent earthquakes in the Pacific plate, which also relieve the strain, showed a greater number occurring in the plate’s younger lithosphere. “In the Earth, those strains are either accommodated by elastic deformation or by little earthquakes that adjust it,” he said.

“The central assumption of plate tectonics assumes the plates are rigid, and this is what we make predictions from,” said Gordon, who was recently honored by the American Geophysical Union for writing two papers about plate movements that are among the top 40 papers ever to appear in one of the organization’s top journals. “Up until now, it’s worked really well.”

“The big picture is that we now have, subject to experimental and observational tests, the first realistic, quantitative estimate of how the biggest oceanic plate departs from that rigid-plate assumption.”

The National Science Foundation supported the research. Gordon is the Keck Professor of Geophysics and chairman of the Earth Science Department at Rice.

Publication: Corné Kreemer and Richard G. Gordon, “Pacific plate deformation from horizontal thermal contraction,” Geology, 2014; doi: 10.1130/G35874.1

Image: Corné Kreemer and Richard Gordon

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