War of 1812
The War of 1812 (1812-1815), referred to by some contemporaries as the Second American Revolution, was fought between the United States and the United Kingdom. Often remembered only as a sideshow to the Napoleonic Wars, the war had some long-term impacts like the reduction of Native American political power and the strengthening of US and Canadian national identities.
Causes
Briefly summarized, the main causes of the War of 1812 include:
Unresolved tensions between the US and UK left over from the American Revolution.
Seizure of US merchant vessels and impressment of US sailors by the Royal Navy.
Rise of an intertribal Native American confederacy led by the Shawnee chieftain Tecumseh, backed by British agents.
The influence of the 'War Hawks', a clique of Democratic-Republican congressmen intent on driving Britain from North America, with desires of annexing British Canada.
Of these causes, the most important was the matter of impressment. Since 1793, Britain had been at war with France and often stopped and seized American vessels suspected of trading at French ports. While the French were also guilty of attacking American shipping, the British were seen as more egregious for the added layer of impressment; claiming that many American sailors were actually deserters from the Royal Navy, the British would routinely impress these sailors 'back' into service. The United States viewed this as an attack on its sovereignty, especially after American sailors were killed in the Chesapeake-Leopard affair of 1807. An outspoken group of congressmen called 'War Hawks' – notably including Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun – began to call for a 'Second War of Independence' and demand Britain be chased off the North American continent. While few openly called for the annexation of British Canada, this was certainly an outcome desired by many of the 'War Hawks'.
The Americans also accused the British of supporting a confederacy of Native American nations rising in the northwest. This confederacy was largely the work of two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, who believed intertribal cooperation to be the only means of resisting US encroachment on their lands. The British agents in the region supported Tecumseh; they considered an independent Native American state an excellent buffer between the US and Canada. Hoping to crush this growing threat, Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory set out to destroy the confederacy's headquarters at the village of Prophetstown. While encamped outside the town, Harrison was attacked by Tecumseh's warriors at the Battle of Tippecanoe (7 November 1811). Harrison won the battle and destroyed Prophetstown, with Tecumseh's Confederacy allying itself closer to the British.
By 1812, it was clear that the US and UK were on the brink of a war that few people actually wanted. In June, Britain decided to back down by revoking the Orders in Council that allowed for the impressment of US sailors. But it was too late – unaware of that development, US President James Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war against Britain on 18 June 1812, which was granted. This was a risky move, as the US Army was small and untrained, and its navy was hardly equal to the mighty Royal Navy. But many Americans were unconcerned, predicting a quick and easy conquest of Canada; in the words of former president Thomas Jefferson, the invasion of Canada would be nothing more difficult than 'a mere matter of marching' (Wood, 677).
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