Sofia Jannok performing yoik (Photo from www.last.fm.com)
An Overview
A woman stands alone on a stage cradling a large drum in one arm and a mallet in the other. She is wearing a brightly colored dress, with a collar with long fringes that fall on her chest. She begins to sing long, drawn-out notes in a high, somewhat nasally voice. At this point she begins to lightly hit the drum, which produces a low, unobtrusive sound. It is clear that the focus of this performance is on her voice alone. She sings only notes at first, but begins to use words as her voice grows harsher, and is noticeably more nasal. She does not seem to be singing defined verses and choruses. She stops, and the song appears to end abruptly. It feels as though the song could have continued indefinitely, like a circle. The audience applauds.
The yoik (also spelled jojk, joik) is a musical practice of the Sami People, an indigenous people inhabiting far northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and some regions of Russia. A yoik has religious, personal, and historical significance. Yoiks vary in terms of structure, composition, and subject matter depending on geographic region and time period. The traditional yoik, exhibits the characteristics observed above: circular in structure, mostly vocal, harsh, almost nasal vocal timbre, and subtle drum use. Common themes include religion, the human relation with nature, historical documentation, and appreciation for a particular individual.
Authorship
One important aspect of yoiks to consider is that of ownership, or authorship. Other musical genres often link certain songs with the performers or composers, however, this concept of authorship does not apply to yoiks. The purpose of a yoik is to capture the essence of a subject or event. Therefore, a yoik is not about a subject, it represents that subject in its entirety. Thus, the performers or composers of traditional yoiks are irrelevant as the yoik is an entity that belongs to itself.
Yoik Variations
Three types of yoiks have developed in the northern, southern, and eastern geographic regions of the Sami people. First is the Luohti is the form of yoik found in the northern geographic region. It utilizes a pentatonic scale, with notes that often leap up and down. It has a specific subject, usually a description of a person. It possesses a marked rhythm, syncopations, altering accentuations, altering vocal timbres, and ornamentation (vibratos). These different sounds are created with different breathing styles. Second, in the southern form of yoik, referred to as the Yuolle, is fairly similar to the northern in terms of subject matter but differs in terms of composition. The pitches used in a yoik consist of only two or three notes close together on a scale and the melody consists of several long sounds with some ornamentation. Finally, the Leu'dd is the form of yoik found in the eastern geographic region, and it incorporates elements of the both the Vuolle and the Luohti. This form is unique in that it often takes the form of a poetic personal narrative. It is a form of historical documentation, and often connects a wide range of unrelated subjects. Improvisation is encouraged and common in this form of the yoik. This is the rarest form of the yoik due to the fact that the Sami population is lowest in the eastern geographic regions.
The isolation of northern Europe provided little outside exposure to other cultures prior to Christianization in the 17th century. The Sami people were also spread over such a wide geographic area that many practices developed that were unique to each geographic region, such as the northern, eastern, and southern versions of the yoik. These aspects of the setting led to the development of many unique cultural elements, many of which reveal common themes of the Sami culture also represented in the yoik. Produced goods included a practice known as Duodji, a form of handicraft which involves the unification of beauty and practicality, a theme that is also reflected in the simplicity, aesthetic, and practical purpose of the yoik. The traditional religion of the Sami people is Shamanism, which included polytheism, animalism, and rituals. Yoiks entered this religious sphere as well, as shamans often performed them in religious ceremonies. Yoiks played an integral role in everyday Sami lifestyle, as well. To receive one’s yoik was a rite of passage. Yoiks aided in dealing with loss, as loved ones were commemorated and their life story documented. These were performed in front of groups to communicate history as it passed on the knowledge of a certain event or person.
Colonization
Beginning in the 17th century, the Sami people were severely impacted by the advent of Christian missionaries. This resulted in many decades of cultural repression and erasure. The yoik was forbidden on religious grounds, as the Christians believed the Shamanist practices of the Sami People, including the yoik, were connected with Satan. Some did still practice the yoik and retain their cultural practices, but they were forced to perform in secret and solo, as larger gatherings of Sami people were prohibited. Due to religious and cultural persecution, many of the Sami people were assimilated into Norwegian culture, resulting in the loss of many Sami traditions.
Lyrics
The lyrics are considered to be one of the most important aspects of the yoik, and it is during this time period of colonization that they begin to develop a new significance. The yoik served as a way to express political objections to colonization. One epic yoik is titled “When the Thieves Became Masters in the Land of Shamans”. It comments on how the “thieves” or colonizers have entered the land, taken control, and robbed it of natural resources. It then advocates for the expulsion of these thieves from the land. This yoik is indicative of the impact colonization had specifically on Shamans. Due to the fact that they were often both religious and political leaders, Shamans were heavily targeted and controlled during colonization. While this yoik demonstrates anti-colonial sentiment, some yoiks were in fact instruments of colonial resistance. The ambiguity in the language of yoik poetry allowed for the transmission of secret messages against the ruling class that would go undetected by the governing representatives of the colonizers, as they were unable to interpret the double meanings of some of the phrases. Yoiks were therefore not only ceremonial or historical, but heavily political as well.
Revival Movement: Nils-Aslak Valkeapää
A cultural revival movement began in the 1970s that sought to bring back the erased traditions of Sami Culture. While the traditional yoiks give insight into the culture of the Sami people prior to colonization, it is the more modern yoiks that demonstrate the struggle of rebuilding a culture that was almost completely eradicated. The yoik plays an important role in this reestablishment of the Sami cultural identity. Several musicians incorporated the yoik into other musical forms throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.
Nils-Aslak Valkeapää (Photo from likesuccess.com)
One of the most notable is Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, a Sami musician who used his music as a form of political activism to encourage the preservation of Sami culture. He experimented with combinations of yoiks with popular music, symphonies, music videos, Sami music festivals, choral projects, and school music education. For example, he fused western and traditional instruments to create a symphonic versions of several yoik melodies in the Yoik Symphony, in 1973. Valkeapää’s goal in this symphony was to dispel some of the negative perceptions the general public had about the Sami people by bringing the yoik to the same level of grandeur as the more respected western symphony. Not all of his experiments were well received, as some criticized the alterations to the traditional music. However, he is still nonetheless renowned for his work for the Sami people. A famous scholar of the Sami people, Harald Gaski, stated in 2001: "Nils-Aslak's accomplishments for his people were so great that he will come to be regarded by all posterity as a modern-day mythical being among the Sami" (Gatski 2001).
Valkeapää’s subject matter includes not only the Sami identity, but also raises awareness about the environment of the Sami people, which was endangered by government actions during the Cold War period. He reflects this sentiment in the 1994 Bird Symphony, which uses sound to highlight the natural elements while combing them with traditional yoiking. The first thirty minutes consists of purely natural sounds free from any human-produced musical qualities. This first half consists of wind, ocean waves, running water, and a variety of birds. The purpose of this piece is to provide the setting, as the collection of sounds allow the audience to picture where the sounds are coming from. At thirty-two minutes into the piece, a solo yoiker is introduced, and combined with the existing natural sounds. Another yoiker is soon introduced, creating a homophonic texture as the two voices harmonize. More voices soon enter in the background, adding to this texture with different harmonies to create a chorus of yoikers. The sound of the yoik is equal in volume with the natural sounds, creating an equal blend between the two as if to emphasize that they are of equal importance. There is a meter present in the yoik, however no drums of any sort are heard.
The Yoik in Modern Popular Culture: Jon Henrik Fjällgren
The yoik has also appeared more recently in Swedish popular culture. Jon Henrik Fjällgren is a Sami musician that was born in Columbia but adopted and raised by Sami parents in Sweden. He faced discrimination throughout his childhood, as he was often teased for having darker skin than his peers. In 2014, he performed a yoik for his audition for “Sweden’s Got Talent” in honor of his friend who had passed away, entitled “Daniel’s yoik”. He later won the competition and produced an album. His rise to fame heightened this discrimination, as some have questioned the validity of his claim to Sami culture, as he is not the “correct” ethnicity associated with the Sami people. This is indicative of the argument over the true definition of the Sami identity that has now been infused with other cultures and races.
Jon Henrik Fjällgren’s yoik is similar to traditional yoiks thematically, but not compositionally. The subject matter is similar to that of a traditional yoik, as he focuses on honoring a particular person. He states that Daniel, the subject of the song, came to him and gave him the melody himself. This adheres to the concept of yoik ownership, as he gives the credit of authorship and ownership to the subject of the yoik. During this performance, he wears traditional Sami clothing, and the show emphasizes his history of growing up with Sami culture. This show also demonstrates the connection of the Sami people to nature by integrating pictures and clips of nature throughout his introduction before he performed. However, this yoik is more western in its structure, as it more linear, with a gradual build to a climax followed by a gradual decline, rather than the circular structure of the traditional yoik. He uses only a piano and his voice, with no traditional Sami drums. The timbre of his voice is neither harsh nor nasally, again deviating from the traditional traits of yoiks. When analyzing the reception, it is important to note that this is a television show, and thus the reactions of the live audience are prerecorded and specifically chosen to demonstrate what the home viewer’s reaction should be: overwhelmingly positive. This bias is interesting, as it reveals that the producers are choosing to portray the yoik and the associated Sami culture in a very positive light.
Reflections
The yoik has played an integral role in the history and culture of the Sami people for centuries. The yoik was present in the everyday sphere of life prior to colonization before being used politically both during colonization and during the later stages of cultural rebuilding. This is an example of how long musical traditions can last when they are so heavily integrated into multiple spheres of life. Its ability to last through the period of colonization and cultural oppression speaks to the durability of the genre, as it was not only able to survive, but historically document its oppressors as well. This spirit of resilience and independence of the yoik is emulated by its performers to this day. When asked what feeling performing the yoik on stage gave him, Jon Henrik replied “Freedom. The yoik is about freedom” (Jon Henrik 2015).
References Used
Burke, Kathryn. “The Sami Yoik.” Sami Culture. Accessed June 23, 2016.
Gaski, Harald. Med ord skal tyvene fordrives. Om sameness episk poetiske diktning. Karasjok: Davvi Girji OS, 1987 (1993).
Kent, Neil. The Sámi Peoples of the North: A Social and Cultural History. London: Hurst, 2014.
Ramnarine, Tina K. "Acoustemology, Indigeneity, and Joik in Valkeapää's Symphonic Activism: Views from Europe's Arctic Fringes for Environmental Ethnomusicology." Ethnomusicology 53, no. 2 (2009): 187-217.
