the Golden Hall

Cattle die, kinsmen die; the self must also die. I know one thing which never dies: the reputation of each dead man.

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Mythical Swords, part VI

Crocea Mors (Latin for "yellow Death") was the name given to Julius Caesar's sword, according to the legends presented by Geoffrey of Monmouth. In Middle Welsh versions, it is called Angau Coch ("Red Death") or Angau Glas ("Grey Death").

The British prince Nennius acquired it when, during single combat with Caesar, it got stuck in his shield. It killed everyone Nennius struck with it. Nennius died fifteen days after the battle of a head wound inflicted by Caesar, and the sword was buried with him.

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Vikings and tattoos,

What else do we know :

Last time, we’ve seen that tattoos, or something approaching the concept of it, existed for longer that we initialy thought and was widely known (from China to northern Italy, you don’t need a map to realise it covers eastern europe/germania). We have one precious written source from the 10th century, that evokes the tattoos, using the word that he would use for mosque decorations.

In his Risala, Ahmad Ibn Fadlan (we spoke of him before and will again) described the numerous peoples he encountered, and roughly one-fifth of his account is devoted to the Rus. "I have never seen more perfect physical specimens, tall as date palms, blond and ruddy," he wrote. "Each man has an axe, a sword, and a knife and keeps each by him at all times." The men, he observed, were tattooed with dark-green figures "from fingernails to neck."

The Arabic word for the color of the tattoos can mean green, blue or black. Almost certainly these were dark blue tattoos, created using wood ash as the dyeing agent.

Ibn Fadlan calls the designs "trees", but it is highly likely that he is actually describing knotwork patterns that were common in northern art.

Sadly there is no angles or saxon source for that. Yet.

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Viking and tattoos ?

Why not.

Even if we lack archaeology evidence, Vikings might have worn tattoos, as it is a very ancient practice.

Perhaps the most famous tattooed ancient man is Ötzi the Iceman, who died high in the Italian Alps more than 5,000 years ago. Ötzi’s clothing, tools, and weapons are a remarkable window into the life of a herder or perhaps a chieftain in Copper Age Europe. But it is Ötzi’s body itself, almost perfectly preserved by the snow and ice that covered him shortly after his death, that provides unique evidence of early medicine. Ötzi is covered with more than 50 tattoos in the form of lines and crosses made up of small incisions in his skin into which charcoal was rubbed. Because they are all found on parts of the body that show evidence of a lifetime of wear and tear—the ankles, wrists, knees, Achilles tendon, and lower back, for example—it’s thought that Ötzi’s tattoos were therapeutic, not decorative or symbolic. When Ötzi was first studied, archaeologists were shocked because they had never before seen Copper Age tattoos, and because acupuncture as a treatment for joint distress, rheumatism, and arthritis was thought to have originated in Asia more than 2,000 years later.  

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In March 845, a fleet of 120 Danish Viking ships containing more than 5,000 men entered the Seine under the command of a Danish chieftain named "Reginherus", or Ragnar. This Ragnar has often been tentatively identified with the legendary saga figure Ragnar Lodbrok, but the historicity of the latter remains a disputed issue among historians. In or around 841, Ragnar had been awarded land in Turholt, Frisia by Charles the Bald, but he eventually lost the land as well as the favour of the king. Ragnar's Vikings raided Rouen on their way up the Seine in 845, and in response to the invasion, determined not to let the royal Abbey of Saint-Denis (near Paris) be destroyed, Charles assembled an army which he divided into two parts, one for each side of the river. Ragnar attacked and defeated one of the divisions of the smaller Frankish army, and took 111 of their men as prisoners and hanged them on an island on the Seine. This was done to honor the Norse god Odin, as well as to incite terror in the remaining Frankish forces.

The Vikings finally arrived in Paris on either Easter Sunday, 28 March, or Easter Day, 29 March, entered the city and plundered it. During the siege, a plague broke out in their camp. The Norse had been exposed to the Christian religion, and after first praying to the Norse gods, they undertook a fast, acting on the advice of one of their Christian prisoners, and the plague subsided. The Franks could not assemble any effective defence against the invaders, and the Vikings withdrew only after being paid a ransom of 7,000 livres (French pounds) of silver and gold by Charles the Bald, amounting to approximately 2,570 kilograms (5,670 lb). Considering Ragnar's earlier loss of land by Charles, the substantial payment may also have been regarded as some form of compensation for Ragnar's loss, and the invasion itself as an attack of revenge. In any case, this would be the first of a total of thirteen payments of so-called Danegeld to Viking raiders by the Franks (although the term itself is not expressly known to have been used at this particular point). While agreeing to withdraw from Paris, Ragnar pillaged several sites along the coast on the return voyage, including the Abbey of Saint Bertin.

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Long time since I published something. Like an undead, I rise from my silence. Speaking of undead, what about northern ones ? Draugr. You've heard of them through Skyrim, here is a more historical approach : Lexicon Poeticum provides the following definitions of the word: “1.- draugr, m, genfoerd, spøgelse, höjbo” and “2.- draugr, m, troestamme, troe, hyppig, kenninger for moend.”92 Fritzner states that draugr is a “dødning = dauðr maðr; dels om dem, som efter Døden have sin Bolig i Graven: þeir er freista drauga upp at vekja eða haugbúa.” And Cleasby-Vigfusson-Craigie translate it as “Draugr, m (Lat. truncus is perhaps akin): 1. - a dry log, this sense, however, only occurs in old poets. 2. - metaph. In prose (as it is now used), a ghost, spirit, especially the dead inhabitant of a cairn was called draugr."So, traditionally there have been two different ways of approaching the draugar in the written sources, namely, those who study the draugr as revenants and, on the other hand the ones who study them linguistically, as a kenning for ‘man’ or ‘warrior’. Therefore Medieval Scandinavia’s entry about Supernatural Beings, has to say about them that “[t]he skaldic draugr (‘tree, tree trunk,’ viz. ‘companion comitatus’) has nothing to do with revenants.” The zombie draugr is for us. Draugar possess superhuman strength, can increase their size at will, and carry the unmistakable stench of decay. "The appearance of a draugr was that of a dead body: swollen, blackened and generally hideous to look at." They are undead figures from Norse and Icelandic mythology that appear to retain some semblance of intelligence. They exist either to guard their treasure, wreak havoc on living beings, or torment those who had wronged them in life. The draugr's ability to increase its size also increased its weight, and the body of the draugr was described as being extremely heavy. Thorolf of Eyrbyggja saga was "uncorrupted, and with an ugly look about him... swollen to the size of an ox," and his body was so heavy that it could not be raised without levers. They are also noted for the ability to rise from the grave as wisps of smoke and "swim" through solid rock, which would be useful as a means of exiting their graves. In folklore, draugar slay their victims through various methods including crushing them with their enlarged forms, devouring their flesh, devouring them whole in their enlarged forms, indirectly killing them by driving them mad, and by drinking their blood. Animals feeding near the grave of a draugr may be driven mad by the creature's influence. They may also die from being driven mad. Thorolf, for example, caused birds that flew over his bowl barrow to drop dead. Draugar are also noted as being able to drive living people insane.

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Mythical Swords, part V Mistilteinn ("Mistletoe"). Also known as Misteltein or Mystletainn, is Hrómundr Gripsson's sword in Hrómundar saga Gripssonar, a legendary saga from Iceland.

Mistilteinn first belonged to Þráinn, who had been king in Valland before he retired in his burial mound with his wealth. The Danish king Óláfr and his men, among whom Hrómundr Gripsson, learnt about that and found the barrow. Þráinn, who had become a draugr (living dead, will come back later on it) was sitting inside. No one but Hrómundr dared to enter. After a long and fierce fight, he defeated Þráinn and took his treasure, especially his sword, with which Þráinn had killed four hundred and twenty men (and you thought Wolverine was a bad-ass...), including the Swedish king Semingr.

Hrómundr used Mistilteinn during the battle between Óláfr and two Swedish kings both named Haldingr. He killed Helgi inn frækni (the Valiant), who had slain his brothers. He then lost Mistilteinn in the water out of witchcraft. He deeply felt this loss but soon recovered his sword, which was found in the stomach of a pike (which might had suffer from indigestion). But Mistilteinn was of no help when he fought king Haldingr, whom he eventually killed with a club.

In Gesta Danorum, Mistletoe is the weapon used to kill Baldr.

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Ship burial, direct witness. Except acheological finds, texts can offer a good description of ship burials, here is one of the oldest. A 10th-century Arab Muslim writer named Ahmad ibn Fadlan (yes, that's the guy from the 13th Warrior) produced a description of a funeral of a Scandinavian, probably Swedish, chieftain who was on an expedition on the eastern route. The account is a unique source on the ceremonies surrounding the Viking funeral of a chieftain.

The dead chieftain was put in a temporary grave, which was covered for ten days until they had sewn new clothes for him. One of his thrall women (might be some kind os slave) volunteered to join him in the afterlife and she was guarded day and night, being given a great amount of intoxicating drinks (probably with Amanita Muscaria, as some traces were found for other rituals) while she sang happily. When the time had arrived for cremation, they pulled his longship ashore and put it on a platform of wood, and they made a bed for the dead chieftain on the ship. Thereafter, an old woman referred to as the "Angel of Death" (will come back later of this person with another atricle) put cushions on the bed. She was responsible for the ritual.

Then they disinterred the chieftain and gave him new clothes. In his grave, he received intoxicating drinks, fruits and a stringed instrument (classic offerings). The chieftain was put into his bed with all his weapons and grave offerings around him. Then they had two horses run themselves sweaty, cut them to pieces, and threw the meat into the ship. Finally, they sacrificed a hen and a cock.

Meanwhile, the thrall girl went from one tent to the other and had sexual intercourse with the men. Every man told her: "Tell your master that I did this because of my love to him". In the afternoon, they moved the thrall girl to something that looked like a door frame, where she was lifted on the palms of the men three times. Every time, the girl told of what she saw. The first time, she saw her father and mother, the second time, she saw all her relatives, and the third time she saw her master in the afterworld. There, it was green and beautiful and together with him, she saw men and young boys. She saw that her master beckoned for her. By using intoxicating drinks, they thought to put the thrall girl in an ecstatic trance that made her psychic and through the symbolic action with the door frame, she would then see into the realm of the dead. (The same ritual also appears in the Icelandic short story "Völsa þáttr", where two pagan Norwegian men lift the lady of the household over a door frame to help her look into the otherworld.)

Thereafter, the thrall girl was taken away to the ship. She removed her bracelets and gave them to the old woman. Thereafter she removed her finger rings and gave them to the old woman's daughters, who had guarded her. Then they took her aboard the ship, but they did not allow her to enter the tent where the dead chieftain lay. The girl received several vessels of intoxicating drinks and she sang and bade her friends farewell.

Then the girl was pulled into the tent and the men started to beat on the shields so her screams could not be heard. Six men entered the tent to rape the girl, after which they forced her onto her master's bed. Two men grabbed her hands, and two men her wrists. The angel of death put a rope around her neck and while two men pulled the rope, the old woman stabbed the girl between her ribs with a knife. Thereafter, the relatives of the dead chieftain arrived with a burning torch and set the ship aflame. It is said that the fire facilitates the voyage to the realm of the dead.

Afterwards, a round barrow was built over the ashes, and in the centre of the mound they erected a staff of birch wood, where they carved the names of the dead chieftain and his king.

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The Viking Longhouse Life inside a Viking Longhouse would have been a noisy, dirty experience, many would be living together in the same house. Viking homes were long rectangular buildings. Often one end of the longhouse was used as a barn. The barn end of a longhouse would have crops stored, and it would usually be divided into stalls for cattle and horses. By living under the same roof as their animals the Vikings were able to secure a constant source of heat (a rather noisy one). It also ensured that the animals were kept safely away from cattle thieves. A cow was a valuable form of income. A fireplace would be somewhere in the middle of the floor. The fireplace would be used for heat, light and as cooking facilities. There would not have been a chimney, so the entire building would have been quite smoky. The smoke from the fireplace would only be able to escape from gaps in the roof; whether the roof was made of thatch, peat or wood shingles, depending on the local materials. Benches would have run along the walls. These benches were usually an integral part of the structure of the entire building. They would help reinforced the base of the walls. There would not have been much else for furniture other than the benches. The benches would function as both bed and as sitting accommodations during the day. Simple forms of craftsmanship such as spinning, weaving and basketry could be performed on the benches. Some farms had separate buildings for different activities. Several forges have been found in some farms throughout Denmark, and the majority of the forges are not located in the main building. Viking homes within towns did not have the need for as much space for the storage of crops or for cattle, so they were shorter than country homes. The best evidence we have for Viking town houses comes from the Viking Age town of Hedeby, Germany. The houses in Hedeby were rectangular, and they were about 12m long by 5m wide. Country homes throughout the Viking World range from 30-60m long by 5m wide. The longest known longhouse was found near Lofoten, Norway and it had a length of no less than 83 meters. One of the homes found in Hedeby had an oven for cooking food. However, this was most certainly not the norm during the Viking Age, and the presence of a separate kitchen is actually quite odd.

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Hrisbru longhouse archeological picture, as displayed in previous post. This was excavated in 2008.

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Hrisbru longhouse : The viking longhouse (Scandinavian langhus) come from the Germanic cattle farmer longhouses, emerged along the southwestern North Sea coast in the third or fourth century BC and might be the ancestors of several others medieval house types such as, the English, Welsh and Scottish longhouse variants and the German and Dutch Fachhallenhaus. The longhouse is a traditional way of shelter. Many were built from timber and often represent the earliest form of permanent structure in many cultures.

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Grobina (latvia) Viking sword, one and half hand.

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Egill Skallagrímsson. He was a Viking Age poet, warrior and farmer, he is also the protagonist of the eponymous Egil's Saga. Egil's Saga historically narrates a period from approximately 850-1000, being written somewhere between 1220 and 1240. "My mother wants a price paid To purchase my proud-oared ship Standing high in the stern I'll scour for plunder. The stout Viking steersman Of this shining vessel: Then home to harbour After hewing down a man or two."

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If Christmas went wrong with someone, challenge him the viking's way ! Holmgang (hólmganga in Old Norse and modern Icelandic, holmgång in Swedish).

Is a duel practiced by early medieval Scandinavians. It was a recognized way to settle disputes. Holmgang can be translated as "to go to (or walk on) a small island" or simply "island walk", perhaps a reference to the duels taking place upon a small piece of hide or cloak placed on the ground. The name may also derive from the combatants dueling on a small island or islet, as they do in the saga of Egill Skallagrimsson. At least in theory, anyone offended could challenge the other party to holmgang regardless of their differences in social status. This could be a matter of honor, ownership or property, demand of restitution or debt, legal disagreement or intention to help a wife or relative or avenge a friend. Holmgangs were fought 3–7 days after the challenge. If the person challenged did not turn up for the holmgang, the other man was considered just in his challenge. If the offended party does not turn up for the holmgang, they are deemed niðingr, and could have been sentenced to outlawry. In effect, if they were unwilling or able to defend their claim, they had no honor. Sometimes a capable warrior could volunteer to fight in the place of a clearly outclassed friend.

Exact rules varied from place to place and changed over time, but before each challenge the duelists agreed to the rules they used. The duel was fought either on a pre-specified plot or on a traditional place which was regularly used for this purpose. The challenger recited the rules, traditional or those agreed upon, before the duel. Rules determined the allowed weapons, who was eligible to strike first, what constituted a defeat or forfeiture and what the winner received; in Norway, the winner could claim everything the loser owned. How many times the challenged actually gave in beforehand, is unrecorded. First holmgangs probably ended on the death or incapacitation of one combatant. Killing an opponent did not constitute a murder and therefore did not lead to outlawry or payment of weregeld. Later rules turned holmgang into a more ritualistic direction. Kormakssaga states that the holmgang was fought on an ox hide or cloak with sides that were three meters long. It was staked on the ground with stakes used just for that purpose and placed in a specific manner now unknown. After that the area was marked by drawing three borders around the square hide, each about one foot from the previous one. Corners of the outermost border were marked with hazel staves. Combatants had to fight inside these borders. Stepping out of borders meant forfeiture, running away meant cowardice. There is one reference in Kormakssaga about a sacrifice of a bull before the holmgang but there are many references about the sacrifice the winner made after the victory. Combatants were permitted a specific number of shields (usually three) they could use - the opponent's strikes could break a shield. The challenged would strike first and then the combatants would hit each other in turn. The combat would normally end on the first blood and the winner would receive three marks of silver. This represents mainly the later Icelandic version of holmgang, which was intended to avoid unnecessary loss of life and excessive profiteering; unless the dispute was about a specific property, the most the winner could receive was the three marks of silver. Professional duelists used holmgangs as a form of legalized robbery; they could claim rights to land, women, or property, and then prove their claims in the duel at the expense of the legitimate owner. Many sagas describe berserks who abused holmgang in this way. In large part due to such practices, holmgangs were outlawed in Iceland in 1006, as a result of the duel between Gunnlaugr Ormstunga and Hrafn Önundarson, and in Norway in 1014.

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Arngrim. He was a berserker, who figures in Hervarar saga, Gesta Danorum, Lay of Hyndla, a number of Faroese ballads and Orvar-Odd's saga in Norse mythology. Arngrim went pillaging to Gardariki and met its king Svafrlami, who was in possession of Tyrfing at the moment. Tyrfing cut through Arngrim's shield and down into the soil, whereupon Arngrim cut off Svafrlami's hand, grabbed the sword and slew him with his own weapon. Then Arngrim captured Svafrlami's daughter Eyfura and forced her to marry him. Another version however relates that Arngrim became Sigrlami's war-chief and won many battles and conquered land and subjects for the old king. In recompense, Arngrim was given a high position in the realm, Eyfura and Tyrfing. In all versions of the saga, Arngrim returned to Bolmsö with Eyfura. They had twelve sons who all followed in their father's footsteps and became berserkers. They were called Angantyr, Hjörvard, Hervard, Hrani, Barri, Tyrfing, Tind, two Haddings, Bui, Bild and Toki.

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Svafrlami was the son of Sigrlami, who was the son of Odin. Svafrlami was the king of Gardariki and the first owner of the magic sword Tyrfing. One day, he was hunting on his horse and discovered two dwarves near a large stone. He bound them by swinging his sword above them so they could not disappear. The dwarves, who were named Dvalinn and Durin, asked if they could buy themselves free and undertook to make a magic sword. The sword would neither break nor rust and it would cut through iron and stone as easily as through cloth and would always give victory. When Svafrlami acquired the sword, he saw that it was an exquisite and beautiful weapon and it was named Tyrfing. However, before disappearing into the rock, the dwarves cursed the weapon so that it would never be unsheathed without killing a man, would be the undoing of Svafrlami and cause three evil deeds. One day, Svafrlami met the Berserker Arngrim, they started to fight. Tyrfing cut through Arngrim's shield and down into the soil, whereupon Arngrim cut off Svafrlami's hand, took Tyrfing and slew him. Arngrim then forced Svafrlami's daughter Eyfura to marry him. According an alternative version, Arngrim became the war-chief of the aged king and was given both Tyrfing and Eyfura as rewards.

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Mythical swords, part IV Tyrfing. She was a magic sword in Norse mythology, which figures in the Tyrfing Cycle, which includes a poem from the Poetic Edda called Hervararkviða, and the Hervarar saga. The name is also used in the saga to denote the Goths. The form Tervingi was actually recorded by Roman sources in the 4th century. Yep, that's quite ancient, older than the Norse mythology we know. Here goes the story : Svafrlami was the king of Gardariki, and Odin's grandson. He managed to trap the dwarves Dvalinn and Durin when they had left the rock where they dwelt. Then he forced them to forge a sword with a golden hilt that would never miss a stroke, would never rust and would cut through stone and iron as easily as through clothes. The dwarves made the sword, and it shone and gleamed like fire. However, in revenge they cursed it so that it would kill a man every time it was drawn and that it would be the cause of three great evils. They finally cursed it so that it would also kill Svafrlami himself. When Svafrlami heard the curses he tried to slay Dvalin, but the dwarf disappeared into the rock and the sword was driven deep into it, though missing its victim. Svafrlami was killed by the berserker Arngrim who took the sword in his turn. After Arngrim, it was worn by Angantyr and his eleven brothers. They were all slain at Samsø, by the Swedish champion Hjalmar, and his Norwegian sworn brother Orvar-Odd; but Hjalmar, being wounded by Tyrfing (its first evil deed), has only time to sing his death-song before he dies, and asks Orvar-Odd to bring his body to Ingeborg, daughter of Yngvi at Uppsala. Angantyr's daughter, Hervor (by his wife Tófa) is brought up as a bond-maid, in ignorance of her parentage. When at last she learns it, she arms herself as a shieldmaiden, and goes to Munarvoe in Samsø, in quest of the dwarf-cursed weapon. She finds it and marries King Gudmund's son Höfund. They have two sons, Heidrek and Angantyr. Hervor secretly gave her son the sword Tyrfing. While Angantyr and Heidrek walked, Heidrek wanted to have a look at the sword. Since he had unsheathed it, the curse the dwarves had put on the sword made Heidrek kill his brother Angantyr. This was the second of Tyrfing's three evil deeds. Heidrek became king of the Goths. During a voyage, Heidrek camped at the Carpathians. He was accompanied by eight mounted thralls, and when Heidrek slept at night, the thralls broke into his tent and took Tyrfing and slew Heidrek. This was the last one of Tyrfing's three evil deeds. Heidrek's son, also named Angantyr, caught and killed the thralls, and reclaimed the magic sword, and the curse had ceased. Angantyr was the next king of the Goths, but his illegitimate half-Hun brother Hlod (or Hlöd, Hlöðr) wanted half of the kingdom. Angantýr refused, and Gizur called Hlod a bastard and his mother a slave-girl. Hlod and 343,200 mounted Huns invade the Goths. The Huns greatly outnumber the Goths. The Goths won because Angantyr used Tyrfing. He killed his brother Hlod on the battleground. The bodies of the numerous warriors choke the rivers, causing a flood which filled the valleys with dead men and horses.

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