Nā Kai ‘Ewalu is a poetic reference to the Eight Seas, or rather, the ocean channels that link the Hawaiian Islands together. Though technically, there’s nine. These channels are…
‘Alenuihāhā between Hawaiʻi island and Maui
‘Alalākeiki between Kahoʻolawe and Maui
Keʻalaikahiki between Kahoʻolawe and Lanaʻi
ʻAuʻau between Lanaʻi and Maui
Pailolo between Molokaʻi and Maui
Kalohi between Molokaʻi and Lanaʻi
Kaʻiwi between Molokaʻi and Oʻahu
Kaʻieʻiewaho between Oʻahu and Kauaʻi
Kaulakahi between Kauaʻi and Niʻihau
It can also be a reference to the eight Aliʻi (historic rulers of Hawaiʻi).
Kamehameha I
Kamehameha II - Liholiho
Kamehameha III - Kauikeaouli
Kamehameha IV - Alexander Liholiho
Kamehameha V - Lot Kapuaiwa
Lunalilo
David Kalākaua
Queen Liliʻuokalani
This reference however, doesnʻt include her highness Premier Kaʻahumanu. The Premier assumes the role of Monarch upon the death of the King, and on the day of King Kamehameha IV’s death, Ka'ahumanu III proclaimed her brother as successor to the Throne.
Nā Kai ʻEwalu could also refer to the eight islands of Hawaiʻi themselves, along with their common color, “flower”, and mountain emblems.
Waikīkī beaches are known traditionally as a surfing hot spot even before the increased urbanization and tourist prioritization.
There are various accounts of the old surfing culture, and they tell of a Hawaiʻi that belonged to Hawaiians, with all the cultural nuances known to kamaʻaina (native-born Hawaiians, locals).
For instance, “ka nalu haʻi o Kalehuawehe” (#1493) talks about the rolling surf of Kalehuawehe at Waikīkī. It was so named when a legendary hero took off his lei (garland) of lehua blossoms and gave it to the wife of the ruling chief, with whom he was surfing.
Another quote that talks of the favored surf at Kalehuawehe, is “e hoʻi ka uʻi o Mānoa, ua ahiahi” (#285); a saying meaning “let the youth of Mānoa go home, for it is evening”. It refers to the youth of Mānoa who used to ride the surf at Kalehuawehe in Waikīkī. The surfboards were shared among several people who would take turns using them, and those who finished first often suggested going home early, even though it might not be evening, to avoid carrying the boards to the hālau where they were stored. Later, this expression was used for anyone who went off to avoid work.
----------
kumu: Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No'eau: Hawaiian Proverbs and Poetical Sayings. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press, 1983.
Kāne is a source of sunlight and energy, watching over environmental activities that occur due to the relationship of the earth and the sun.
water cycle
formation of clouds
the deepening of roots, and the growing of plants
natural phenomena such as lightning, thunder, rainbows
Kinolau of Kāne
Each form of Kāne provides something that we need as kānaka. These kinolau would be mea that give us sustenance, medicine, building materials, and ceremonial objects.
lāʻau, such as kalo, and kumu kukui
puaʻa, both for eating and ceremonial purposes
in some families, the pueo is a kinolau of Kāne
spring water, fresh water, brackish water
sunlight
coral
Kāne Systems in Waikīkī
In many different moʻolelo across the pae ʻāina of Hawaiʻi, two akua who went on countless adventures together are Kāne and Kanaloa. It is known that they had toured Hawaiʻi, swimming, eating and drinking ʻawa, and spouting up springs in different areas of each island; springs that are similar to those deeply connected to the meaning of Waikīkī’s name as a place of spouting waters. As the akua of fresh water, Kāne is connected to all the forces of nature that give us breath. Where Waikīkī was once a chiefly favorite for agriculture and fishing, Kāne is found in the sunlight, the agriculture, and the force that brings forth and sustains human life.
Kū is the akua that guards over the earthbound powers, and energy that rises out of the earth, pulling down the atmosphere. There are different forms of Kū for fishing, farming, and caring for family. He watches over time and change.
Shifts occur through time, which separates one change from the next.
While Kū does not “move”, he will change over time with nature.
Kū weather systems will “pull down” the lani ʻōhia, or the top of the forest canopy, “where the heavens meet the earth”.
Kinolau of Kū
Kū’s forms preside over the works of bird-catchers and carvers, so he appears in various kinolau, both in animal forms and plant forms.
Kū can be found as a kanaka
different manu, such as the ʻio
and animals like ʻīlio, and moa
Plant forms of Kū are niu, ʻulu, noni
and ʻōhiʻa lehua
Additional forms of Kū
Kūmauna—Kū of the mountain, a rain akua of Kaʻū, Hawaiʻi
Kūkaʻōʻō—Kū of the digging stick, akua of farming
Kūkeolowalu—Kū of wetland farming
Kūʻulakai—Kū of the abundant sea, akua of fishing
Finding Kū systems in Waikīkī
As Waikīkī was once a narrow ribbon of sand that lay between wetlands, fishponds, and a reef that stretched a few thousand feet wide, Kū was intertwined in the canopy above the old marsh, as a guardian of the wetland farming, and protector of many lokoiʻa.
Kawaharada, Dennis., and Esther T. Mookini. Hawaiian Fishing Legends : with Notes on Ancient Fishing Implements and Practices. Honolulu, Hawaii: Kalamaku Press, 1992.
Puniwai, Noelani. Lecture. Akua Processes. Presented by the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, 2020.
Wiegel, Robert L. “Waikiki Beach, Oahu, Hawaii: History of its Transformation From a Natural to an Urban Shore.” Shore and Beach 76, no. 2 (2008): 3
Lono weather systems are those where the air currents runs through and around our islands. Lono is wind and sound together, and refers to year-round weather.
Lono as an embodiment of wind
Lono water is that which descends as rain
Lewa makua and lewa lani lewa, is stormy weather & lighting is Lono makua
Natural phenomena we experience in hoʻoilo, such as clusters of dark clouds, thunder, whirlwinds, and waterspouts, are all representative of Lono weather systems
Kinolau of Lono
ʻuala (sweet potato)
ipu (gourd plant)
kukui (candlenut tree)
ʻamaʻu (fern)
hāpuʻu (tree fern)
maiʻa hinupuaʻa (the hinupuaʻa type of banana)
Parts of the kalo plant are used ceremonially to represent Lono, specifically lūʻau leaves
Hū ka hoihoi!
The puaʻa, or pig, is important in traditional Hawaiian religious ceremony. In reference to Lono, certain parts of the pigʻs body served as a fitting sacrifice. Certain plants—collectively called puaʻa lau—and certain fish—collectively called puaʻa kai—can sometimes take the place of the pig as the sacrifice.
The abundant and varied kinolau of Lono remind us of his importance in daily life, especially for farmers.
Laka is an akua of the forest. She is reproductive energy, and makes the forest grow and thrive. To do this, she watches over the evaporation of water molecules, and how the water from the honua rises and goes into transpiration. Where water is, Laka can be found.
Laka is found in the upward movement of water
she is a detrimental part in the cycle of wai, which connects all the deities.
like Lono, she represents the merging of water, being carried on the wind.
Kinolau of Laka
Kinolau of Laka are the ʻaʻaliʻi, the lama tree, and the maile vine. Her kinolau are important for those who hula, and for their kuahu.
from: Mahele: Sustaining Communities Through Small-
Scale Inshore Fishery Catch and Sharing Networks, by Mehana Blaich Vaughan and Peter M. Vitousek (2013)
Throughout the Pacific, “subsistence” fishing feeds not only individual fishers and their families, but a much broader network of people through the noncommercial distribution, or sharing, of fish. We find that the traditional and customary system of sharing fish, like subsistence activities in other mixed economy settings, provides benefits beyond the provisioning of food. These benefits include perpetuation of traditional and customary skills and practices, social status, social networks, reciprocal exchange, and collective insurance. Taken together these benefits enhance the resilience of community level social and ecological systems.
This study evaluates the present significance of this sharing, through tracking subsistence fish catch and distribution, or mahele, in one small Hawai‘i fishery over an eighteen month period.
Waikīkī, one of the many jewels of the Pacific. This southern coastline of the island of Oʻahu is home to one of the world’s most famous beaches, and some of the richest history. Once a place of lush vegetation and filled with fishponds, Waikīkī has since become a paradise catered to visitors, switching from a place of sustenance for locals, to a tourist destination. However, it is through stories and Hawaiian proverbs that we have access to another perspective of Waikīkī. When we look at our mythology and find our deities in the natural aspects of this place, we can connect to the land in a way that restores the old Waikīkī spiritually while we find ways to restore it physically.
Akua Processes at Waikīkī
In many different moʻolelo (stories) across the pae ʻāina (archipelago) of Hawaiʻi, two akua (deities) who went on countless adventures together are Kāne and Kanaloa. It is known that they had toured Hawaiʻi, swimming, eating and drinking ʻawa, and spouting up springs in different areas of each island; springs that are similar to those deeply connected to the meaning of Waikīkī’s name as a place of spouting waters. Kāne is the akua of fresh water, and is connected to all the forces of nature that give us breath. He is the sunlight, the kalo, and the force that brings forth and sustains human life. Kanaloa is also an akua of water. He is associated with the ocean, long distance voyaging, and healing, with the ocean itself thought to be one of his forms. Because of the relationship these akua have to bodies of water throughout Hawaiʻi, water is considered as one of the greatest gifts given to kānaka (humans) by akua and represents the gods themselves.
Originally, Waikīkī was a narrow ribbon of sand that lay between wetlands, fishponds, and a reef that stretched a few thousand feet wide. Several small streams flowed into the sea from the mountains, forming pockets of brackish water perfect for loko iʻa, or traditional Hawaiian fishponds. Wakīkī’s mixing waters not only made the area a rich and healthy farming ground, but also a sacred place frequented for physical and spiritual renewal. Chiefs and rulers of old Hawaiʻi, favored Waikīkī for its capacity to provide for its people. Waikīkī brought bountiful agriculture and ocean harvests for centuries, and infused the mana (spiritual power) of its caretakers who, in their relationships with their people and the ʻaina (land), watched over the different loʻi kalo (taro patched) and loko iʻa that were established in the area. Because of that mana, we’re able to see how the akua play their part in the creation of such a place, how their work sustained it in the past, and how some aspects are still present today.
Kāne himself is studied as a source of energy, an embodiment of the sun (as Kānehoalani) and oversees the creation of clouds. Environmental activities which occur due to the relationship of the earth and the sun, happen as a result of Kāne’s presence in the area. He and Kanaloa are expressed to be twins, both having the ability to embody one another. All that represents Kāne may also represent Kanaloa and vice versa, though they are still opposite in many ways. Where Kāne represents the Ao/Lā (the day), Kanaloa is the Pō (the night). Kāne is represented in Ke Ala Polohiwa a Kāne (Tropic of Cancer), and represents East and North. Kanaloa, on the other hand, represents the West and South and Ke Ala Polohiwa a Kanaloa (Tropic of Capricorn). Physically, it can be said that Kāne represents fresh water, and Kanaloa is the salt water. Waikīkī is representative of their convergence and relationship as twins, as it was historically a place where the mountains met the sea and where the fresh water from the uplands came down to meet the salt water of the ocean. That brackish water—the muliwai—is one of processes of Kāne and Kanaloa.
It would be incorrect to say that only Kāne and Kanaloa are present in the historic Waikīkī, as it has been explained that “where there is water, Laka can be found”. Laka is the Hawaiian akua of forests, hula, and reproductive energy. She is represented by the cycle of wai, the water cycle, which connects all deities. Her process is found in the evaporation of water molecules, and transpiration. Along with her partner Lono, Laka’s natural form takes place in the merging of water, and water being carried on the wind. Where “Lono water” descends, “Laka water” is upward moving. Lono is characteristic of wind and sound coming together, embodying wind as the air current that runs through and around all islands of Hawaiʻi. As Lewa Makua and Lewa Lani Lewa, Lono Makua is the stormy weather and lightning.
Stories of Place
As an ahupuaʻa, a section of land from mountain to ocean, Waikīkī is characteristic of all the above akua processes. We see this in the many mele and hula of Oʻahu, and in the countless ʻŌlelo Noʻeau (proverbs) connecting Waikīkī as a place of culture, tradition, and rich with history. While akua have their place in the physical and spiritual realms that oversee Waikīkī, they are not the only holders of moʻolelo. ʻŌlelo Noʻeau, proverbs and poetical sayings, have provided a unique look into the Hawaiʻi of our kūpuna (elders). Here is a collection of ʻŌlelo Noʻeau that tell stories of Waikīkī and of the traditional Hawaiʻi. They tell of fruitful beaches, fragrant limu and fish you could sense from paces away. “Nā līpōa ʻala o Kawehewehe” (#2255) talks about the fragrant līpōa seaweed of Waikīkī and specifically that of Kawehehwehe. Līpōa, a household name and often mentioned in song, was said to be so fragrant that one could smell it while standing on shore. It was even referred to as “ka iʻa hanu ʻala o kahakai” (#1332), a fragrant-breathed fish of the beach.
Waikīkī beaches are also known traditionally as a surfing hot spot even before the increased urbanization and tourist prioritization. There are various accounts of the old surfing culture, and they tell of a Hawaiʻi that belonged to Hawaiians, with all the cultural nuances known to kamaʻaina (native-born Hawaiians, locals). For instance, “ka nalu haʻi o Kalehuawehe” (#1493) talks about the rolling surf of Kalehuawehe at Waikīkī. It was so named when a legendary hero took off his lei (garland) of lehua blossoms and gave it to the wife of the ruling chief, with whom he was surfing. Another quote that talks of the favored surf at Kalehuawehe, is “e hoʻi ka uʻi o Mānoa, ua ahiahi” (#285); a saying meaning “let the youth of Mānoa go home, for it is evening”. It refers to the youth of Mānoa who used to ride the surf at Kalehuawehe in Waikīkī. The surfboards were shared among several people who would take turns using them, and those who finished first often suggested going home early, even though it might not be evening, to avoid carrying the boards to the hālau where they were stored. Later, this expression was used for anyone who went off to avoid work.
There are other proverbs that tell of an even older Waikīkī, during a time of wandering akua, strong chiefs and weary prophets. One proverb with connections to ancient Waikīkī reads, “e nui ke aho, e kuʻu keiki, a moe i ke kai, no ke kai la hoʻi ka ʻāina” (#363). This quote, meaning “take a deep breath, my child, and lay yourself in the sea, for then the land shall belong to the sea” is said to have been uttered by the Kahuna (priest) Kaʻopulupulu at Waiʻanae. Weary with the cruelty and injustice caused by Kahāhana, chief of Oʻahu, Kaʻopulupulu walked with his son to Waiʻanae, where he told his son to throw himself into the sea. The boy obeyed, and there died. Kaʻopulupulu was later slain and taken to Waikīkī where he was laid on the sacrificial altar at Helumoa. However, this moʻolelo Wakīkī doesn’t end here. “Ke one ʻai ʻaliʻi o Kakuhihewa” (#1772) tells of the chief-destroying sands of Kakuhihewa on the island of Oʻahu. When Kahuna Kaʻopulupulu was put to death by the chief Kahāhana for warning him against the cruelty to his subjects, he told a prophecy. He predicted that, where his own corpse would lie in a heiau (temple) at Waikīkī, there too would lie the chief’s corpse. Furthermore, like he had said to his son, Kaʻopulupulu foretold that the land would someday go to the sea—that is, to a people from across the sea. This was said to have been a curse. When Kamehameha III was persuaded by a missionary friend to move the capital from Lāhaina to Oʻahu, another Kahuna, remembering the curse, advised him not to, lest the monarchy perish. The warning was ignored, and before the century had passed, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was no more. With the end of the Hawaiian Kingdom, development continued on Waikīkī and more often than not, we lean on the stories of an old Hawaiʻi to remember the local surf, bountiful fishponds and sacred space that once made Waikīkī a favorite of chiefs and home to histories that came long before hotels.
sources:
Feeser, Andrea, and Gaye Chan. Waikiki: A History of Forgetting and Remembering. University of Hawaii Press, 2006.
Waikīkī, Ka Wahi Aloha: Once a Native Hawaiian Paradise
23 September 2020 | HWST 356
Waikīkī; the picturesque beachscape portrayed to be full of beautifully slim brown women, soft white sand, shady palm trees and the clear blue crashing waves in the distance. Truly a tourist’s dreamscape paradise. Countless movies, television shows, songs, and music videos were created with this very place in mind. But how did it come to be this “pristine” nirvana that has social media influencers raving over the sunsets? What stories lie buried beneath the white sandy beach at Waikīkī and what can be learned about its history and pilina (relationship) with the old Hawaiʻi? In the 1940s, Andy Cummings wrote a song telling of what he remembered as the beautiful Waikīkī, ending it with the following lines:
Waikīkī
My whole life is empty without you
I miss that magic about you
Magic beside the sea
Magic of Waikīkī
Within the last five decades, after the rebirth and renewed interest of Hawaiian culture and traditions that came as a cultural renaissance, the recognized value for native practices, such as voyaging, plant farming, and fishing has increased. For the purpose of this paper, I will be focusing on loko iʻa fishing sites, and their ties to that magic of Waikīkī, the Waikīkī of the old Hawaiian days.
Moʻolelo and the Loko Iʻa of Waikīkī
The history of loko iʻa (Hawaiian fishpond systems) is both rich and extensive. With the help of both written and oral histories, Hinapukuiʻa, whose name translates to “Hina who gathers fish,” is an akua (spiritual entity) that guards fishermen. She is the wahine (wife) of Kūʻulakai and mother to ʻAiʻai. Kūʻulakai, is also an akua for fishermen, and is said to have built the first loko iʻa at Lehoʻula (Maui). In the moʻolelo of Kūʻulakai and Hinapukuiʻa, they were living at Lehoʻula on Maui. Kūʻulakai had devoted all his time to his fishing. His first project was to build a loko iʻa close to his house and near the aekai, where the surf breaks. When he found his spot, he stocked the pond with various kinds of fish. Upon a rocky platform, he also built a house, which he called by his own name, Kūʻula. There, he made it tradition to offer the first fish caught to the fish god. Because of his knowledge and skill, fish became obedient to him, and were plentiful during his life. His son ʻAiʻai had later picked up the practice, teaching people to find fish and how to utilize the loko iʻa system. It had since been a Hawaiian practice and cultural necessity for life in ancient Hawaiʻi.
More than a century ago, most of the Waikīkī shore was a narrow, thin ribbon of carbonate sand that lay between wetlands, mudflats, duck ponds, fishponds, and a gently sloping reef a few thousand feet wide. There wasn’t the long stretch of hot sand on the beach as you see now, nor the thin patches of sand on the reef. In fact, there were several small streams flowing into the sea from the mountains. This Waikīkī, with that old time magic, is not the Waikīkī photographed on vintage postcards. Nor is it the romantic landscape of an isolated paradise with spacious beaches and crashing crystal waves. Kānaka Maoli, Native Hawaiians, born and raised at Waikīkī are descendants of ancient Polynesians and Pacific Peoples who traveled across Oceania to the Hawaiian islands in waves. Those who had settled in Hawaiʻi brought with them ancient knowledge and items, creating working systems for food and water—the loko iʻa being one of the most innovative. Wakīkī’s waters not only made the the area a rich farming ground, but also a sacred place frequented for physical and spiritual renewal. Aliʻi Nui, divine rulers, favored Waikīkī not only because of its fruitful nature, but because it was an ideal dwelling site; Waikīkī had freshwater, bountiful agricultural and ocean harvests, as well its ready access to the culturally Pacific practice of sea transportation. It was truly a sacred Native Hawaiian paradise, infused with the mana (spiritual power) of these rulers who, in their relationships with their people and the ʻaina (land), watched over the different loʻi kalo (taro patched) and loko iʻa that were established in the area.
Unique to Hawaiʻi, the loko iʻa system is considered one of Hawaiʻi’s most significant traditional resources. They are biocultural articulations of Hawaiian innovation in the areas of engineering, education, hydrology, aquaculture and biology. Loko iʻa demonstrate traditional Hawaiʻi’s proficiency in not only sustainability, but in food security and sovereignty, and natural resource management. Research shows that more than 400 fishponds once functioned across Hawaiʻi, being an important and sustainable food source for the Hawaiian people, with a pre-contact population estimated to be nearly one million. Increasing immigration and western influences during the 19th and 20th centuries, along with increased industrialization, urbanization and overdevelopment would prove to have a devastating impact on the traditional Hawaiian resource management systems in Hawaiʻi. As a result, most Hawaiian fishponds fell into disrepair. The case today is that there are nowhere near as many loko iʻa in operation, and those that weren’t completely destroyed, are not fully functional.
Loko iʻa are considered sacred because of their spiritual power, and their inviting the presence of akua and ʻaumakua (ancestral spirits and guardians). They were things that beautified the land, and a land with many loko iʻa was called ʻāina momona, a fruitful land. Waikīkī is named to be reflective of it’s waters, wai being a general term for water, and for any type of water besides the saltwater of the ocean (kai). Kīkī means to spout or spray, so Waikīkī is named as a place of spouting water. When looking at the structure of loko iʻa systems (as well as loʻi irrigation systems), they connect from mauka (the mountains) to makai (the ocean), the physical place where freshwater and saltwater mix (muliwai). Utilizing that connected space dates back over half a millennium, as cultivation and propagation centered on many different fresh and saltwater plants and animals, with the primary species being the prized ‘ama‘ama (mullet) and ‘awa (milkfish). Waikīkī’s location was no exception to this optimal climate.
Development and Urbanization of Waikīkī
Many loko iʻa were created in the brackish waters of Wakīkī. Approaching the twentieth century, much of the Hawaiian lifestyle had begun to wane under the pressure of a perpetually growing tourism. In the late 1800s, the first developments began, solely with the purpose to bring forth visitors, hotels being some of the first constructed buildings. It is reported that the first marine structures—sea walls, groins, and piers—began appearing along the beach during this time. By 1906, the President of the Board of Health of the Territory of Hawaii, Lucius Pinkham, was endorsing full development of the Wakīkī district. Pinkham had declared the wetland of the Waikīkī "deleterious to public health...not drained at all and is incapable of effectual drainage and is in an unsanitary and dangerous condition". So, local loko iʻa were destroyed. Legacies of fishponds and cultivation, cultural places and practices were gone. With the intent to “improve” conditions, Pinkham had proposed to create a canal (ala wai) through the district that would drain and divert streams away from Waikīkī.
Aside from canal dredging, there’s spoken moʻolelo about the swamp areas that used to call Waikīkī home. There were mangrove trees, and with their removal came surpluses of makika (mosquitoes) which caused a lot of pilikia (problems) for those wanting to develop this space. With the coming of the 1910s, seawalls too became a problem for development and they were quickly done away with as the concern was “beach erosion”. Additionally, large quantities of sand were removed many years ago from Waikīkī. In 1910, the Pacific Commercial Advertiser reported on a meeting of the Hawaiʻi Promotion Committee—the article’s headline was: “Spoiling the Waikiki Beach. How Honolulu’s World-famous Bathing Resort is Being Ruined. Heavy Removal of Sand”.
Now, when you sit on a beach chair at Wakīkī, mai tai in hand, watching a slim brown woman gracefully dancing a hula to the strums of an ʻukulele, you smile at the beautiful scene as the sunsets behind her. It’s nearly impossible to imagine that water, power, life, magic, fulfillment and happiness that have been drained from the Wakīkī of old Hawaiʻi (a Hawaiian’s Hawaiʻi).
As the sun sets on the horizon, it tips billowing clouds with rose and golden light, and the ocean deepens to a majestic azure. Soft trade winds blow perfumed air across the faces of tourists and locals who smile warmly and chat as they glory in the perfect early evening and relish the gracious entertainment. It is a magical moment that seems to capture the essence of Wakīkī’s charm; its natural beauty, cultural richness, and warm hospitality.
But we, as Hawaiians, are familiar with the grim history upon which this paradise was built on. The stark contrast of loss and gain is especially powerful in this place of spouting waters, of Wakīkī. While her beauty, the magic of Wakīkī is still very much present, it is through research, listening, and learning of the past does one really get to learn of the fruitful ʻāina momona that Hawaiians had built as the historic Wakīkī.
There's a feeling deep in my heart
Stabbing at me just like a dart
It's a feeling heavenly
I see memories out of the past
Memories that always will last
Of the days that used to be (Of a place beside the sea)
Waikīkī
Sources
Cummings, Andy. Territorial Airwaves. Atlantic Music Corp. 73, 1947.
Feeser, Andrea, and Gaye Chan. Waikiki: A History of Forgetting and Remembering. University of Hawaii Press, 2006.
Honua Consulting, and Conservation International Hawaii Fish Trust. Loko-Ia-Final-EA1. PDF. Honolulu: Department of Land and Natural Resources, October 2013.
Kawaharada, Dennis., and Esther T. Mookini. Hawaiian Fishing Legends : with Notes on Ancient Fishing Implements and Practices Honolulu, Hawaii: Kalamaku Press, 1992.
Laymon, Julie Wooddell. "NA LEO 'ĀINA: LAND VOICES." PhD diss., UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII, 2005.
Miller, Tara L. and Charles H. Fletcher. "Waikiki: Historical Analysis of an Engineered Shoreline." Journal of Coastal Research 19, no. 4 (2003): 1026-043.
Pualani Kauila (professor) on loko iʻa of Waikīkī, in discussion with the author, July 2018.
Wiegel, Robert L. "Waikiki Beach, Oahu, Hawaii: History of its Transformation From a Natural to an Urban Shore." Shore and Beach 76, no. 2 (2008): 3.
Ke one ʻai ʻaliʻi o Kakuhihewa (#1772)
The chief-destroying sands of Kakuhihewa; The island of Oʻahu. When the priest Kaʻopulupulu was put to death by the chief Kahāhana for warning him against cruelty to his subjects, he uttered a prophecy. He predicted that where his own corpse would lie in a heiau at Waikīkī, there would lie the chiefʻs corpse as well. Furthermore, he said, the land would someday go to the sea--that is, to a people from across the sea. This was felt to be a curse. When Kamehameha III was persuaded by a missionary friend to move the capital from Lāhaina to Oʻahu, a Kahuna, remembering the curse, warned him not to, lest the monarchy perish. The warning was ignored, and before the century had passed, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was no more.
gamechangershow
origamiaround
amandla
theartofmadeline