The period in United States history stretching from 1815 to 1849, often referred to as the Middle Period or Antebellum Era, witnessed the em
The period in United States history stretching from 1815 to 1849, often referred to as the Middle Period or Antebellum Era, witnessed the emergence of the Second Party System, in which Democrats and Whigs contended for the growing nation’s direction. As in the past, the main ideological difference revolved around the role of the federal government and its relationship to the states. The Whig Party, drawing its strength from merchants, financiers, professionals, and an ascendant middle class, advocated for a program of modernization reliant upon protective tariffs and a network of federally funded roads, canals, and later railroads. In contrast, the Jacksonian Democrats opposed centralized economic schemes, dismantled the Second Bank of the United States in the early 1830s, and championed a vision of continental expansion known as Manifest Destiny. Under that banner, they orchestrated the forced removal of Indigenous nations to clear the way for farmers, plantation owners, and slaveholders. By 1848, through the annexation of Texas, victory over Mexico in the Mexican-American War, and a diplomatic agreement with Great Britain, the United States had achieved its continental boundaries from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Yet the most profound transformation of this era sprang not from electoral reforms but from a revolution in technology and communications. The advent of the telegraph, the rapid spread of railroads, the expansion of the postal service, and a booming print culture rewove the fabric of American life. These innovations fueled the Second Great Awakening’s wave of evangelical revivals, propelled a surge in public education, and energized a host of social reform movements, from temperance to women’s rights. From a political perspective, they expedited campaign organization and voter mobilization. Economically, they decreased the cost and time associated with transporting goods, capital, and individuals over large distances. In little more than three decades, a collection of isolated, agrarian townships developed and evolved into a cohesive, cosmopolitan republic, built upon the riches of Southern cotton plantations, burgeoning textile and machinery factories in the Northeast, and an ever-improving transportation grid connecting major cities to the frontier regions.
At the same time, Americans began to forge a distinctive cultural identity, breaking free from European precedents in literature, philosophy, and higher learning. Colleges and universities multiplied, nurturing authors, orators, and thinkers who celebrated uniquely American themes and landscapes. The Second Great Awakening, with its camp meetings and fervent preaching, led to the establishment of new Protestant denominations (most notably Methodist and Baptist congregations) that welcomed millions into their pews. Large waves of immigrants from Britain, Ireland, and Germany arrived by the 1840s, pushed from their home countries by factors like famine, economic hardship, political unrest, and the decline of traditional crafts due to industrialization. Migrants settled in rapidly growing urban centers that were beginning to assert themselves as engines of commerce, politics, and social life.
Underlying these developments was the mighty struggle over slavery’s place in the national order. By 1850, roughly 350,000 Southern households held enslaved people, constituting a slave population controlled primarily by about seven percent of slaveholders, who owned three‑quarters of those enslaved. These large plantation owners formed the apex of Southern society, while smaller farmers and non‑slaveholding whites looked to them for political leadership. The ideology of white supremacy permeated all classes, rendering slavery not merely permissible but indispensable to a supposedly civilized way of life. Legal codes codified racial hierarchy at every level, from slave patrols and harsh slave laws to strict social etiquette that enforced Black subordination. Although the South remained reliant on Northern manufactured goods, financial services, and credit, it found itself increasingly isolated from the dynamic agricultural and commercial regions of the Northwest and confronted with a rising abolitionist movement beyond the Mason–Dixon line.
A resolute but relatively small contingent of Northern reformers called for the immediate end of slavery, while a much broader coalition in the North worked to halt its spread and gradually consign it to history. By 1840, more than fifteen thousand individuals had joined abolitionist societies, drawing inspiration from early Puritan thinkers who condemned the institution on moral grounds. Samuel Sewall’s 1700 pamphlet, “The Selling of Joseph,” stands out as one of the first sustained condemnations of both slavery and the slave trade, explicitly dismantling the legal and theological arguments used to justify human bondage. Abolitionist fervor, however, was not confined to the pulpit. Many Whigs, convinced that slavery contradicted the core principles of capitalism and free labor, threw their weight behind anti‑slavery measures. William H. Seward (later to serve as Abraham Lincoln’s Secretary of State) famously declared an “irrepressible conflict” between the logic of free enterprise and the backwardness of a slave‑based economy. Yet for all the intellectual and political energy invested in the cause, violent backlash was not uncommon. In 1837 in Alton, Illinois, a pro‑slavery mob attacked Presbyterian minister Elijah Parish Lovejoy, fatally shooting him as he defended his printing press and abolitionist tracts. In Philadelphia, the short‑lived Pennsylvania Hall—a grand meeting place erected between 1837 and 1838 to host anti‑slavery gatherings—was razed by arsonists within four days of its opening.
The question of whether slavery would march alongside the United States into its newly acquired western territories erupted into a bitter national debate during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). Southern firebrands, intent on transplanting the plantation system across the Rio Grande and into lands they believed rightfully theirs, pressed Texas’s sweeping claim to all former Mexican territory north and east of the river, even parcels it had never truly governed, as a means of guaranteeing new slaveholding districts. In stark opposition, Northern politicians and abolitionists rallied behind measures like the Wilmot Proviso, insisting that any soil wrested from Mexico remain forever free. Before the ink was dry on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the 1848 California Gold Rush flooded the Sierra Nevada foothills with prospectors from every corner of the globe, and the territory’s explosive population growth demanded rapid civic organization. Miners and merchants uprooted by feverish dreams of fortune needed a clear title to their claims, functioning courts, and robust law enforcement; provisional governments sprang up almost overnight. When California’s delegates convened in Monterey for the Constitutional Convention of 1849, they outlawed slavery in the new state and set a powerful precedent.
Beyond the fierce contest over slavery’s westward expansion, a series of more immediate flashpoints stoked growing Northern outrage. The continued presence of the slave trade in Washington, D.C.—where traders openly bought and sold human beings just blocks from the Capitol—became an intolerable stain on the nation’s moral authority, prompting reformers to lobby Congress for its abolition and rally public opinion through impassioned petitions and antislavery fairs. At the same time, disputes over fugitive slaves grew ever more heated: as the nation’s roads, canals, and burgeoning railroad lines expanded after 1830, escapees found new pathways northward, and the network of clandestine safe houses known as the Underground Railroad pushed deeper into free states. Southern insistence on strict enforcement of the 1793 Fugitive Slave Act—and later, the even harsher provisions of 1850—provoked fierce resistance in Northern legislatures, where “personal liberty laws” were passed to hinder slave catchers and protect alleged fugitives. Tales of captured runaways bound in chains and hauled away in grim courthouse auctions galvanized public sympathy and drove thousands of ordinary citizens into the abolitionist cause. In this way, the daily realities of bondage in the heart of the republic and the litigious dramas over individual freedom on its rail lines and riverways ensured that the slavery question would remain an inescapable, incendiary issue in American politics.
On January 29, 1850, Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky unveiled a comprehensive legislative package designed to balance sectional interests. His eight‑bill compromise proposed admitting California as a free state; trimming Texas’s claims in exchange for federal assumption of its debts; organizing Utah and New Mexico as territories without immediate determination of their slavery status; prohibiting the importation of enslaved persons into the District of Columbia for sale; and enacting a more rigorous fugitive slave law. Clay believed that by combining concessions to the North and South, he could secure sufficient support despite objections to individual measures. His plan attracted some Northern Democrats and Southern Whigs but stalled amid fierce opposition. President Zachary Taylor, a slaveholder by background, argued that slavery could not flourish in the semi‑arid lands of the Mexican Cession and thus opposed its extension there. In contrast, Secretary of State John C. Calhoun and other Southern leaders denounced the proposal as biased against their interests, fearing that the creation of additional free states would continually tip the balance in Congress. Among the most memorable moments of debate was William H. Seward’s “Higher Law” address, in which he acknowledged the Constitution’s protections of slavery where it already existed but insisted that a moral law ordained by the Creator superseded any human compact. During one exchange, Mississippi Senator Henry S. Foote, backed into a corner by Missouri’s Thomas Hart Benton, brandished a pistol in protest, only to be wrestled to the floor by fellow lawmakers and disarmed before any shots were fired.
In June 1850, amid mounting sectional tensions, delegates from nine Deep South states assembled in Nashville, Tennessee, to weigh the unthinkable: secession if Congress dared to forbid slavery in America’s newly acquired western territories. The gathering, cloaked in gravity and guarded pride, featured impassioned voices demanding immediate withdrawal from the Union as the only safeguard of Southern rights. Yet cooler heads ultimately carried the day. Rejecting precipitate dissolution, the moderate majority drafted a proposal to extend the Missouri Compromise line of 36° 30′ all the way to the Pacific Coast, thereby preserving an ostensible equilibrium between free and slave jurisdictions. Their plan sought to reassure Southern planters that no congressional decree could shrink the space for “their peculiar institution,” even as it invited Northern lawmakers to embrace geographical compromise rather than endure a fracturing of the nation. In doing so, the Nashville convention crystallized the South’s dual strategy of issuing secessionist threats while clinging to constitutional formulas. This uneasy truce would, in the end, prove woefully temporary.
When President Taylor died suddenly in the summer of 1850, Vice President Millard Fillmore quietly assumed the nation’s highest office and—despite his earlier skepticism—lent his full weight to Clay’s ailing compromise effort. Clay, ever the statesman, had originally bundled five separate resolutions into one sweeping “omnibus” bill, convinced that the combined force of measures on California’s admission, territorial organization, Texas’s boundary, the District of Columbia’s slave trade, and a strengthened fugitive‑slave law would carry Congress toward conciliation. But when senators balked at the tangled package and delivered a decisive defeat, Clay, already weakened by advancing tuberculosis, reluctantly conceded that sectional passions required a different tack. He announced that he would present each provision on its own merits, then departed for a recuperative sojourn in Rhode Island. Into the breach stepped Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, whose pragmatic energy and mastery of Senate procedure would prove indispensable in guiding the individual bills through contentious debates and votes.
Under the resulting compromise, Texas relinquished its claims to the vast territories that would become New Mexico and parts of present‑day Colorado, in exchange for federal assumption of its substantial public debt. California entered the Union as a free state. The remainder of the Mexican Cession was organized into the territories of New Mexico and Utah, where the settlers themselves would decide, under the principle of popular sovereignty, whether to allow slavery. Congress also enacted a more stringent Fugitive Slave Law and abolished the sale of enslaved people in the District of Columbia. When the legislation finally passed, known thereafter as the Compromise of 1850, crowds in Washington and beyond erupted in celebration, chanting, “The Union is saved!” President Fillmore hailed it as a conclusive settlement of sectional disputes.
The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 proved the most contentious element of the compromise. It compelled citizens and local officials in free states to assist in the capture and return of those alleged to have escaped bondage. A lone sworn statement from a claimant sufficed to authorize an arrest, and habeas corpus protections were suspended. Anyone caught aiding an alleged fugitive by providing food, shelter, or other assistance faced up to six months of imprisonment and a fine of $1,000. Federal marshals received payment for each person they returned, and alleged fugitives, denied the right to testify or have counsel, were often summarily sent South. In practice, the law led to the kidnapping of free Black residents, who had no legal recourse to prove their freedom.
In May 1854, Anthony Burns, a twenty-three‑year‑old fugitive who had escaped bondage on a Virginia plantation and quietly built a life as a bootblack in Boston, was accosted by federal marshals under the provisions of the recently enacted Fugitive Slave Act. His forcible seizure from his workplace on Court Street sent shockwaves through the city’s black churches and abolitionist circles, catalyzing a week of mass meetings, frantic petition drives, and street demonstrations. When Burns was brought before Judge Edward Loring in the U.S. Courthouse on July 20, hundreds of Bostonians filled the galleries to witness what would become a riotous scene: abolitionists hurled chairs, shouted down court officers, and struggled with marshals, only to be brutally dispersed by three companies of U.S. Marines called in by Democratic President Franklin Pierce. Under military escort, Burns was marched through jeering crowds to the awaiting steamship. The spectacle stunned the North and galvanized antislavery sentiment. It was only through the tireless fundraising of the Boston Vigilance Committee, bolstered by contributions from trade unions and prominent abolitionists like Lewis Hayden and Frederick Douglass, that $1,300 was raised to purchase Burns’s freedom in 1855, allowing him safe passage to Canada.
Harriet Beecher Stowe, a Connecticut‑born educator at Hartford’s Female Seminary and a fervent abolitionist, was shaken by the brutal enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act. In response, she poured her convictions into a sprawling, deeply human novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, publishing it serially in 1851 and as a two‑volume book in 1852. Centering on the long‑suffering yet steadfast Uncle Tom, Stowe interwove the disparate tales of enslaved men, women, and children, each rendered with vivid detail and moral urgency, to expose the system’s corrosive cruelty. The novel’s rapid climb to bestseller status sparked uproar in pulpits and parlors alike: distributors commissioned popular stage adaptations that brought its scenes of heartbreak and resistance to life before packed houses. In Boston and London, readers wept over escaped slaves Eliza’s flight across the ice and cheered George’s daring bid for freedom. In Mobile, Alabama, a bookseller was hounded out of town simply for stocking Stowe’s book. Stowe herself endured anonymous threats, including one letter that contained a severed ear, allegedly from an escaped slave. Southern writers rushed to pen “anti‑Tom” novels in a bid to rebut her portrait of bondage, but the damage was done: Uncle Tom’s Cabin galvanized abolitionist fervor in the North and made the brutal realities of slavery impossible to ignore. So profound was its impact that, legend holds, when President Abraham Lincoln met Stowe in 1862, he offered, “Is this the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war?”
Most observers believed the question of slavery’s spread into the western territories had been settled, yet in 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas reignited the controversy with his Kansas–Nebraska Act. Ostensibly designed to promote settlement and clear the way for a transcontinental railroad, the legislation nullified the Missouri Compromise’s prohibition of slavery north of latitude 36°30′. In its place, Douglas utilized the doctrine of popular sovereignty, whereby the settlers of each territory, rather than Congress, would vote to determine whether slavery would be allowed. Although Northern Whigs united in bitter opposition, the bill secured passage with near‑universal support from Southern legislators and a handful of Northern Democrats. Almost immediately, both pro‑ and anti‑slavery partisans poured into Kansas Territory, each faction intent on swaying the future state’s electorate and, by extension, the balance of power in the U.S. Senate. Many Missourians—residents in a slaveholding state since 1821—became "border ruffians," crossing the border and claiming fictitious homesteads to vote in Kansas elections. What began as a political struggle soon descended into bloodshed, featuring civilian militias, guerrilla raids, and paramilitary skirmishes that foreshadowed the broader national crisis to come.
The ensuing violence, known grimly as “Bleeding Kansas,” took on the character of a microcosmic civil war. Two rival capitals emerged—pro‑slavery Lecompton and free‑soil Lawrence (later Topeka)—each backed by a separate constitution and legislature. Lecompton’s “Bogus Legislature” drafted a slave‑holding constitution, while the anti‑slavery settlers of Lawrence convened under the Topeka Constitution. Each side solicited external assistance: Northern abolitionists funneled weapons and volunteers to Lawrence, while the Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan administrations in Washington lent federal support to the pro‑slavery faction in Lecompton. As tensions escalated, kidnappings, arson, and pitched battles became commonplace, leaving the territory deeply fractured and underscoring the nation’s inability to resolve the slavery issue by debate alone.
In May 1856, Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts delivered his searing “Crime against Kansas” speech, denouncing both the Kansas–Nebraska Act and the entrenched “Slave Power” in Congress. He targeted Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina with a scathing metaphor, comparing Butler’s devotion to slavery to a knight’s romantic obsession with a corrupted mistress. Sumner then mocked Butler’s speech impediment—brought on by a recent stroke—observing that “he cannot open his mouth, but out there flies a blunder.” Outraged by this personal affront, Representative Preston Brooks, Butler’s cousin, resolved to defend his kinsman’s honor. Rejecting a duel as inappropriate for a “non‑gentleman” like Sumner, Brooks instead confronted the senator in the nearly empty Senate chamber two days later. With a gutta‑percha cane capped in gold, he struck Sumner repeatedly on the head, leaving him unconscious on the floor. Fellow legislators eventually subdued Brooks. The brutal assault laid bare the nation’s polarizing divide: in the North, Sumner was hailed as a martyr, while in the South, Brooks was celebrated as a defender of honor. He resigned his House seat, only to be returned with a resounding endorsement by his district's voters.
Most Americans recoiled at the violence in “Bleeding Kansas” and the assault on Senator Sumner, and these events galvanized the newly formed Republican Party as it entered the 1856 presidential contest with remarkable self‑assurance. The Republican coalition brought together Northern Protestants alarmed by the spread of slavery, industrial laborers facing economic uncertainty, professionals and merchants worried by the influence of the “Slave Power,” and prosperous Midwestern farmers who distrusted Southern plantation interests. Their nominee, John C. Frémont, exemplified the party’s strategy: a celebrated explorer of the Far West and former U.S. senator from California whose brief political résumé made him less polarizing to disaffected Democrats. Other potential standard‑bearers like William H. Seward of New York and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio were judged too doctrinaire in their anti‑slavery views to appeal broadly. The Democrats, branded by Republicans as the party of slavery’s expansion, nominated James Buchanan over the incumbent Franklin Pierce, whose support for pro‑slavery forces had rendered him deeply unpopular in the North. Meanwhile, the nativist “Know Nothing” movement, formally organized as the American Party, sought to supplant the fading Whigs by campaigning against the tide of Catholic immigration. Although each of these three parties drew significant support in Northern states, the Republicans were virtually nonexistent in the slaveholding South. When the ballots were counted, Buchanan secured a plurality of the popular vote and carried every slave state except one, along with five free states, thus winning the presidency.
The question of human bondage reached the nation’s highest court later that year in the case of Dred Scott, a man enslaved in Missouri who sued for his freedom because his sojourn in Illinois, a free territory, had legally emancipated him. After a Missouri state court ruled against him, Scott appealed to the federal judiciary, which likewise deferred to state law. In March 1857, the U.S. Supreme Court, by a 7–2 margin, delivered its infamous verdict in an opinion authored by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney. Taney held that African‑descended people “are not included, and were not intended to be included, under the word ‘citizens’ in the Constitution,” and therefore could claim none of its protections. Because Scott was deemed neither a U.S. citizen nor a citizen of any state, he lacked the “diversity of citizenship” required for federal courts to hear his suit. Taney went further by striking down the Missouri Compromise of 1820, declaring that any congressional prohibition of slavery in the territories violated slaveholders’ property rights under the Fifth Amendment. Far from settling the debate, the decision outraged Republicans (among them Abraham Lincoln, whose series of debates with Stephen Douglas had made him Illinois’s rising political star), who saw it as part of a deliberate design to nationalize slavery. If slavery could not be constitutionally banned in the territories, the Supreme Court could hold it could not be banned in the states either. Southern leaders, increasingly uneasy even with the Kansas–Nebraska framework, hailed the ruling as a constitutional affirmation of their right to introduce slavery in new territories and preserve slavery in their states. Instead of defusing sectional strife, the Court’s opinion splintered the Democratic Party along North–South lines, emboldened Southern slavers, and provided momentum behind the Republican movement.
When John Price, a fugitive from Virginia, was seized under the Fugitive Slave Act in 1858 in the staunchly antislavery town of Oberlin, Ohio, federal marshals, wary of local outrage, spirited him southward by rail to Wellington. There, a determined band of some thirty Oberlin citizens surged the marshal’s guard, pried Price from his captors' hands, and sent him to freedom in Canada through the Underground Railroad. In the aftermath, thirty‑seven rescuers were indicted by a federal grand jury. Ohio state authorities arrested the U.S. marshal, his deputies, and others involved in Price’s seizure. In the ensuing negotiations, state officials agreed to free the federal officers, and in exchange, federal authorities dropped the charges and released thirty‑five of the indicted abolitionists. The courtroom drama gripped the nation: eloquent defenses decried the Fugitive Slave Law as an affront to state sovereignty and natural justice. At Ohio’s 1859 Republican convention, survivors of the rescue pressed delegates to demand repeal of the law, cementing the incident’s role in the party’s anti‑slavery platform. Lewis Sheridan Leary and John A. Copeland, both participants in the Oberlin–Wellington Rescue, along with fellow Oberlin resident Shields Green, would go on to join John Brown’s fateful raid on Harpers Ferry the following year.
John Brown first captured the nation’s attention during the guerrilla warfare of “Bleeding Kansas” in 1856, where he and a small band of anti‑slavery volunteers abducted five pro-slavery settlers from their cabins and split open their skulls with broadswords in response to Sumner's caning and the sacking of Lawrence, Kansas, an abolitionist settlement. The Pottawatomie massacre escalated the bushwhacking war. Three years later, in October 1859, Brown dramatically went even further with his campaign by leading a force of twenty‑one men (including three of his sons) in the seizure of the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). Brown’s plan was audacious: he aimed to spark a widespread slave insurrection, rally freedom fighters across the South, and establish a provisional, slavery‑free republic under a constitution he had drafted. Although his men succeeded in taking the armory, the uprising quickly faltered. Local militia units and a detachment of U.S. Marines under Colonel Robert E. Lee closed in, cutting off escape routes. In the fierce firefight that followed, seven raiders and ten townspeople were killed, and many more were wounded. Brown was captured alive, tried in Charlestown for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, and became the first person executed for treason in U.S. history when he was hanged on December 2, 1859. In the South, newspapers vilified Brown as a bloodthirsty madman who embodied Northern aggression, while in the North, abolitionist presses celebrated him as a heroic martyr whose sacrifice made the horror of slavery impossible to ignore. Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison said, “In firing his gun, John Brown has merely told what time of day it is. It is high noon, thank God.”
In 1860, the Republican Party gathered in Chicago to nominate Abraham Lincoln, endorsing a platform that pledged not to interfere with slavery where it already existed but firmly opposed its expansion into federal territories. Passionate young Republican supporters formed paramilitary groups like the Wide Awakes to organize and spread support for Lincoln. A coalition of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party, seeking to preserve the Union by sidestepping the slavery issue. They nominated former Tennessee Senator John Bell. Meanwhile, the Democratic Party fractured. At the Charleston convention in April, Southern delegates, led by Alabama politician William L. Yancey, walked out over disputes concerning popular sovereignty, leaving the gathering without a candidate. Two months later, in Baltimore, Northern delegates selected Senator Stephen A. Douglas, whose support for letting each territory decide the slavery question proved insufficient for radical Southerners. In turn, Southern Democrats convened and nominated Vice President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The split in Democratic ranks and the emergence of the Constitutional Union ticket divided the vote: Lincoln carried the Northern states, Breckinridge and Bell split the South, and Douglas held pockets of support in the border regions, the only candidate to win free and slave states. When the ballots were tallied, Lincoln secured a majority in the Electoral College and a plurality of the national popular vote with 39.7 percent. His share remains the smallest for any victorious candidate since the contingent election of 1824, when Congress had to decide the result.
News of Abraham Lincoln’s election roiled the Deep South, where planters and politicians feared the end of slavery’s expansion. On December 20, 1860, a special convention in Columbia, South Carolina, declared that “the Union heretofore existing between South Carolina and other States… is hereby dissolved,” setting a dramatic precedent. In rapid succession, between January 9 and February 1, 1861, six more cotton‑producing states (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) followed suit, convening their own conventions and formally withdrawing from the Union to establish the Confederate States of America with its capital first at Montgomery, Alabama. In contrast, the Upper South and the crucial border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) hesitated, weighing economic ties, community loyalties, and concerns about federal reprisals before ultimately remaining in the Union, at least for the moment. Both the lame‑duck administration of President James Buchanan and President‑elect Lincoln flatly refused to recognize the legality of secession or the authority of the nascent Confederacy, insisting that the Union was perpetual.
In December 1860, the final session of the 36th U.S. Congress convened amid mounting tension. In the Senate, John J. Crittenden (formerly a Kentucky Whig who had run as a Unionist) introduced what became known as the Crittenden Compromise. His proposal included six constitutional amendments and four accompanying resolutions aimed at constitutionally safeguarding slavery in all existing slaveholding states. Despite the urgency of the moment, Congress declined to adopt his measures. Shortly thereafter, on January 17, 1861, former President John Tyler published a pamphlet calling for a gathering of the twelve border states—six free and six slave—to negotiate a settlement to the national crisis. Delegates assembled at the Willard Hotel in Washington, D.C., on February 4, 1861. However, the seven Deep South states that had already enacted secession ordinances declined to participate, choosing instead to proceed with plans to establish a separate government in Montgomery, Alabama. Over three weeks, the so‑called Peace Conference produced a seven‑point amendment that largely mirrored Crittenden’s earlier proposals, including the simple extension of the Missouri Compromise line west to the Pacific. Congress again rejected the plan. In a final attempt at conciliation, Senator William H. Seward and Representative Thomas Corwin sponsored the Corwin Amendment, which would have rendered slavery immune from future federal interference or amendment. This language was endorsed by outgoing President Buchanan and even received a passing reference in President‑elect Abraham Lincoln’s inaugural address in March 1861, but before three‑quarters of the states could ratify it, the crisis at Fort Sumter rendered debate moot.
When South Carolina formally withdrew from the Union, Major Robert Anderson (a former Kentucky slaveholder) chose loyalty to the United States over allegiance to his native state. Commanding the last significant Union garrison in the Deep South, he received orders from the War Department to hold Charleston’s forts. Recognizing that Fort Moultrie was indefensible against modern artillery, Anderson stealthily transferred his small force by night to Fort Sumter, a more robust installation situated on a fortified island in Charleston Harbor. South Carolina’s new authorities cried foul, while many in the North celebrated Anderson’s defiance as a bold stand against secession. In February 1861, the Confederate States of America formally organized under President Jefferson Davis, who ordered the fort’s capture. The Confederate bombardment was directed by Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, once Anderson’s protégé at West Point, and commenced on April 12, 1861. After thirty‑six hours of shelling and with his supplies exhausted, Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter on April 14.
President Lincoln’s emergency proclamation of April 15, 1861, issued a call for 75,000 volunteers to serve for three months to reclaim federal arsenals, secure garrisons, and defend Washington. This transformed a regional rebellion into an unmistakable test of national unity. By demanding that each state furnish its quota, the President compelled wavering slaveholders to make a fateful choice between the Union he vowed to preserve and the Confederacy already in arms. Within two days, Virginia’s convention voted to secede (April 17), driven by fear that federal troops would march through Richmond. Maryland and Missouri teetered on the brink of rupture as authorities imposed martial law and guarded strategic rail lines. In early May, Arkansas (May 6), Tennessee (May 7), and North Carolina (May 20) withdrew from the Union, sending delegates to Montgomery to ratify the Confederate constitution. Only Kentucky, Delaware, and loyal pockets of Missouri and Maryland managed to straddle the divide. Regions including western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and northern Arkansas would remain more inclined to unionism than secession. Only West Virginia, however, would secede from the Confederacy and rejoin the Union, one of two states, along with Nevada, to be admitted to the U.S. during the Civil War.
The American Civil War had officially begun.
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