A Level Psychology

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[a-level-psychology]

Risk Factors: Addiction: Peer influences

Addictions can be influenced by pressures from those we know in our own age groups who encourage certain things. Tajfel and Turner suggest that this could be due to social identity theory. This suggests that an individuals self concept is formed by being part of the “in group”, which we feel we must be associated with in order to be socially accepted. This then leads to the formation of our social networks, which will consist of individuals who have similar habits to us: Eiser et al: smokers befriend smokers, non-smokers befriend non-smokers Latkin et al: Probability of drug use and abuse linked to the number of drug users in our social networks Kinard & Webster: having things modelled to us makes them appear positive and socially acceptable, so we are more likely to engage in them, with is validating behaviours that we already engage in. Indirect peer influence can also play a part, with Shakya et al suggesting that the parents of our peers also act as mentors, so positive parenting is associated with decreased drug use in own children and their friends. Evaluating peer influences Peer influences can also occur via social media: Moreno et al: 400 myspace profiles of 17-29 year olds, 56% make reference to alcohol use Litt and Stock: exposure to peer influence alters normative perceptions and risk cognitions, as those exposed have a greater willingness to use alcohol and drugs, decreasing the associated risks thought of. Those with older friends who use drugs are more likely to use drugs themselves. De Vries et al argue that the influences of peers can be overstated, as smoking behaviour isn’t a consequence of friendship selection, but friendship selection a consequence of smoking, with parental smoking habits being more influential than peer smoking behaviours. This theory has real world application in the form of reducing peer influences via social norms interventions to overcome misperceptions such as the numbers of those that really use often being lower than thought and the risks associated with behaviours being much higher than people believe

[a-level-psychology]

Risk Factors: Addiction: Family Influences

Bandura(1977) Social learning theory: we learn through observing those closest to us This would therefore mean that our families (parents, siblings especially) would be highly influential on our behaviours, even out likelihood of being addicted to something. Reith and Dobbie(2011) interviewed 50 gamblers and found that they all watched family members gamble or speak of gambling behaviours Parental influences Parents firstly provide social role models for their offspring. This has been demonstrated through a number of studies: Biederman et al (2000) Those with parents who abuse substances are more likely to do this themselves Reith and Dobbie (2011) found evidence of gendered gambling, with boys being more likely to copy fathers and participate in sports betting, with girls being more likely to copy mothers and participate in bingo Same gender increases similarity therefore the influence that individuals have Parenting style can also influence, with authoritative parenting with the right levels of warmth and control being protective: Fletcher et al: this parenting shapes psychological resistance and emotional wellbeing, leading to lower levels of substance abuse Sibling influences Could possibly be more influential than parental influences, demonstrated by: Griffin et al(2002) found that adolescent substance abuse is influenced by the behaviour of siblings Windle (2000) sibling alcohol use more influential than parental alcohol use Snyder(2005) modelling causes the development of undesirable behaviours Whiteman& Christiansen(2008): the result of a power imbalance means the older siblings act as role model Sibling influences have more of an impact on the friend choice of teens, so they gravitate towards peers that resemble and validate older siblings Evaluating family influences Bahr et al support the role of family influences as they found that tolerant parental attitudes and sibling substance abuse are associated with drinking, smoking and drug use Tolerant attitudes allow for socialization with peers who drink, smoke and use drugs. Stattin and Kerr suggest that a lack of parental influence may to be blame for addictions,as parents stop paying attention when they learn that their child is engaging in these sorts of behaviours, allowing for the adolescent to carry on with behaviours as parents see it as out of their control, so let them continue Even though sibling influences have been shown to be important, intervention strategies ignore sibling influences Feinberg et al: This hinders the reduction of early substance abuse, undermining interventions as siblings are bigger influences

[a-level-psychology]

Comparrison Of Approaches

Determinism:what causes behaviours? Biological Approach: Deterministic: Biology, genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones. Behaviourist Approach: Deterministic: Reinforcement history, environments, conditioning Social Learning Theory: Deterministic: Vicarious reinforcement, observe actions and reactions Free will: we choose whether or not to replicate behaviours (mediational processes) Cognitive Approach: Deterministic: Internal mental processes Psychodynamic Approach: Deterministic: childhood experiences and the unconscious, personality structure Humanistic Approach: Free will: We are personal agencies Nature vs Nurture: innate or experiential? Biological Approach: Nature: genes and biological systems Behaviourist Approach: Nurture: how we interact with our environments Social Learning Theory: Nature: Likelihood of a behaviour Nurture: what we observe Cognitive Approach: Nature: thought processing Nurture: life experiences cause irrational thoughts Psychodynamic Approach: Nature: unconscious mind Nurture: childhood experiences Humanistic Approach: Nature: Innate drive to self actualize Nurture: conditions of worth impact self actualization, positive regard A scientific approach? How committed is it to science? Biological Approach: Positive: monitor neurotransmitters, use of experimental studies, manipulate neurotransmitters Behaviourist Approach: Positive: objective experiments, measurable behaviours Social Learning Theory: Positive: research investigations allow for cause and effect Cognitive Approach: Positive: We can test propositions, but, mental processes are unobservable, so we must infer Psychodynamic Approach: Mixed: come aspects can be scientifically investigated, but there is heavy reliance on case studies and interpretations Humanistic Approach: Negative: belief that scientific methods are inappropriate for studying human behaviours as they are too complex for simple cause and effect

[a-level-psychology]

Maslows Hierarchy Of Needs

[a-level-psychology]

Humanistic Psychology

Rogers and Maslow, concerned with what is important to humans and the importance of striving towards personal growth and fulfillment. Free will Individuals have control over their behaviours and choose whether to do something or not (personal agency), making significant personal choices, however we act within the contstraints of external forces such as our biology and society. Maslow’s Theory Interested in what can go right with people rather than what can go wrong. Places great emphasis on personal growth and the importance of this. Hierarchy of needs: Each level must be fulfilled before the next stage can be progressed to. More basic needs are experienced more strongly, and are harder to ignore. Self actualization: Can be achieved by every person as we have an innate tendency to want to do this, but progress on this path is disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. therefore only 1% of people ever fully achieve this. Those who reach this level tend to me creative and accepting, experiencing moments of extreme ecstasy where all doubts and inhibitions are forgotten. Focus on the self Rogers: people have two basic needs: Positive regard Feelings of self worth: develop in childhood, formed as a result of interactions with parents. also impacted by relationships with other significant others. How we feel about ourselves and self worth are important determinants of psychological health. The closer our self concept and ideal self are, the greater our feelings of self worth and therefore our physchological health. Congruence Exists when there is similarity between ideal self and self concept. When there is a difference a state of incongruence develops. Most of the time, there isn’t a complete state of congruence as we will always experience a degree of incongruence due to never fully living up to our own expectations. When there is a high sate of congruence, self worth is higher. Conditions of worth Rogers: those close to us can both help and hinder self actualisation as love and acceptance is conditional and unconditional. Unconditional positive regard entails acceptance completely of a person regardless of what they do, while conditional positive regard depends on an individual living up to standards or expectations. Conditions of worth then develop through conditional positive regard, as they feel certain things must be done in order to gain the acceptance of a person, for example, “I must complete this assignment for my teacher to think positively of me”. Through this, we only experience self acceptance when we meet the imposed expectations of others. Influence on counselling psychology Rogers suggests that psychological problems are the result of conditions of worth and conditional positive regard, therefore, to overcome these problems, people must receive unconditional positive regard and conditions of worth must be dissolved. Therapists facilitate individuals in understanding themselves to allow them to reach self actualization. Person centered therapies: client responsible for improving life, therapy offers unconditional positive regard, conditions of worth dissolve, clients become true to self. Evaluating humanistic psychology Maslow’s hierarchy linked to economic development Hagerty: 88 countries, 34 years, the less economically advanced are characterized by lower level needs while the more economically advanced are characterized by self actualization and esteem. Research has shown that those who experience conditional positive regard ignore their own values and do what is expected of them Harter et al: teens who feel they must meed expectations to make their parents happy tend to like themselves less and create false selves to meet parent’s needs. Causal conclusions cannot be drawn from research methods used (case studies, interviews, questionnaires), with no experimental evidence being gathered making evaluation of therapies difficult Humanistic counseling may allow for personal growth but this does not say this definitely causes changes This is an over-idealized view of human nature- we aren’t inherently good or growth oriented: self destruction and pessimistic. Oversimplifies problems as being due to lack of self actualization- what about situational factors and issues? Culture bias: variations in hierarchy of needs: China: belonging more important than physiological needs Self actualization not important, but being part of the community Europeans&Americans: personal identity defines self concept Chinese, Japanese, Korean: social relationships define self concept However, Maslow did recognise this and acknowledged that in different places the hierarchy may change and levels may disappear altogether

[a-level-psychology]

Psychosexual Stages

[a-level-psychology]

The Psychodynamic Approach

Freud’s psychoanalysis is the most well known psychodynamic approach, in which individuals are seen as constantly changing as they develop, putting major emphasis on unconscious motives and desires, with early childhood experiences being of great importance. Freud maintained that behaviours are determined by psychological rather than biological factors. Although we are born with biological instincts and needs, the unconscious controls behaviours The unconscious: inaccessible to conscious thought controls most behaviours, revealed through slips of the tongue, creativity and neuroticism prevents traumatic events from resurfacing in conscious mind (defence mechanisms) The structure of personality: The id: unconscious, libido, reproductive biological energy, operates in accordance with pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification The ego: Mediates between impulse (id) and reality of external world, delaying gratification for a suitable time compromises between impulsive ego and moralistic superego The superego: A.K.A conscience: guilt and ego-ideal: what we strive towards and feel we ought to be. Has a heavy focus on societal rules Defence mechanisms: These are used by the unconscious mind to protect from traumatic experiences which would cause severe distress or problems if they were to enter the conscious mind. Regression: reverting to an earlier stage of development when an individual experienced less stress. Thumb sucking, wetting the bed. Repression: blocking unacceptable thoughts and impulses, thoughts still influence behaviour but we are unaware. Abused as a child, cant form relationships as an adult. Denial: not accepting reality to avoid painful emotions. Somebody dies, but an individual carries on as if they had not, same routines, table setting etc. Displacement: redirecting thoughts or feelings. Kicking a door, punching a wall. Sublimation: redirecting thoughts and feelings in a productive way. Art, kickboxing, music. Projection: moving your feelings to another. You hate x but claim that x hates you. Evaluating the psychodynamic approach Pioneering approach: represented a hug shift in psychological thinking, suggesting new methodological procedures to gather empirical evidence, such as case studies. Observations of behaviour were seen as important, demonstrating the potential of psychological treatments Lead to development of successful treatments De Maat et al: analysis, psychoanalysis causes significant improvements in following years after treatment. Claims have been scientifically tested and proven Fisher&Greenberg: 2500 study summary comparing psychoanalysis to other areas of psychology, found evidence for unconscious motivation and defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement. Bus, use of case studies is not scientific and we cannot physically see the unconscious. Gender-biased approach: sees women as less sexually developed than men, ignorant to female sexuality and the differences between females and males Karen Horney: cant dismiss women, Freud treated them and his theory is still highly influential Culture-biased approach: Sue&Sue: only relevant in Western societies: mental disorders are due to traumatic experiences being locked in unconscious: China: depressed or anxious do not discuss thoughts, avoid them West: Open discussion to gain insight. Dismissive of free will- determined by childhood and unconscious Ignored environmental factors Treatment applications: dream analysis, free association, Rorschach testing, hypnosis

[a-level-psychology]

The Biological Approach

The influence of genes Genes carry information from our parents for characteristics which will present in us Genotype refers to out genetic coding, while phenotype refers to our physical appearance, it is important to remember that we cannot always determine our genotype purely through observation of out phenotype. Our behavuours could have a genetic basis as we all have our own unique genetis combinations, with different personalities, intellignece levels and appearance. Twin studies, for example, have suggested that intelligence is 60-80% inherited. Biological structures Neurons and the nervous system: CNS, PNS, carry messages around the body, which make behaviours possible, such as breathing, sleeping etc. The brain: cerebrum: cerebral cortex in control of higher order functions. The cerebrum is split into two hemispheres and four lobes: frontal(speech, thought, learnign), temporal(hearing, memory) occipital(visual) and parietal(sensory) Neurochemistry Neurotransmitters: These carry essages through nerves and across synapses. Triggering neurotransmitters are excitatory, such as dopamine, and inhibiting neurotransmitters are inhibitory, such as serotonin Crockett et al: low levels of serotonin lead to higher levels of aggression Hormones: These are created by the endocrine system and secreted into the bloodstream to exert their influence on target cells by causing physicological reactions in cells. Carrie et al: increased levels of testosterone in hockey teams when playing in home stadium- enables to defend home territory. Evaluating the Biological approach Relies on a scientific method, so research is replicable, so has greater validity, which makes it a more reliable approach than those which use case studies. This approach allows for clear predictions to be made about us and our behaviours. Research into neurochemical imbalances has allowed for successful treatments for disorders such as depression However, the approach may be too reductionist, as genes are seen to control everything with other factors ignored, but we cannot fully understand human behaviour without looking at things such as emotions, cognition and culture Many behaviours may just have a cultural cause rather than a genetic basis Genetic explanations could lead to genetic screening to identify susceptibilities, therefore allowing for discrimination based on this. People could try to use genes as complete explanations even though they are far from this However, if we know we are vulnerable to a disorder we may be able to avoid triggers, so stop a disorder from occurring while being able to learn coping skills to avoid this in the future

[a-level-psychology]

The Cognitive Approach

The study of internal mental processes Cognitive psychologists are concerned with how we process information and how this then impacts our behaviour. Attention, thinking and memory are examples of things involved. We cannot directly see these processes therefore we must infer what happens by observing what we can and making links. The role of schemas Schema's are cognitive frameworks which enable us to make sense of new information, while organizing and interpreting information in the brian, They allow is to take shortcuts when presented with new and large amounts information, enabling us to plug gaps of knowledge by producing stereotypes and expectations, However, they are not always positive as they cause us to dismiss information which is contrary to our views of the world. The role of theoretical and computer models Theoretical models: simplified models which are based on current research evidence, often pictoral. These are incomplete, informal and constantly changing as we learn new information Computer models: computer analogies are used to represent human cognition. For example, information is coded, which is similar to the RAM of the computer and the working memory model Emergence of cognitive neuroscience Things such as PET and CAT scans allow us to gain a basic understanding of the underlying bases of cognitive functions. This allows us to see how the brain supports or contributes to certain cognitive characteristics. Burnett et al: brain regions activate when we feel guilty, PFC linked to social emotion Evaluating the cognitive approach This approach has applications in the real world, and has enabled successful treatments for disorders such ac OCD to be created- CBT This is a scientific approach, as it involves hard evidence from scans, so is based on much more than pure common sense. However it may not be appropriate to compare humans to computers, as we forget things, make mistakes, unlike computers Emotion and motivation of humans is ignored, as the theory only explains how things happen but not why. Things such as emotion and motivation are irrelevant to computers but are crucial for humans The studies within cognitive psychology may lack ecological validity as tasks have little in common with every day experiences, therefore we may not be able to generalise findings to every day situations.

[a-level-psychology]

Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1986)

Modelling Models carry out behaviours. These models can be live (parents, peers) or symbolic (media). These models display behaviours which can be observed and imitated Imitation The behaviours which have been observed can be copied, but whether or not they are will depend on three factors: Characteristics of the model Whether we feel that we can imitate a behaviours The reinforcement we observe to be received Identification To what degree is an individual able to relate to a model? The higher the similarity, the more likely the behaviours will be imitated. Shutts et al: children learn best from models of same sex. Vicarious reinforcement Bandura and Walters: children who see someone rewarded for aggressive behaviour are more likely to imitate this aggressive behaviour Vicarious reinforcement refers to observing someone else receiving reinforcement for a behaviour, learning what the likely behaviours will be so our behaviours can adjust. Therefore, we don’t have to directly experience a reinforcement for it to impact how we behave, Mediational processes These are internal mental processes. Bandura: to learn socially we must make mental representations of behaviours and their consequences which will then mean that future opportunities to carry out a behaviour will lead to the behaviours being carried out if there is a high enough expectation of positive consequences.and not negative. Banduras study: Bobo doll(1961) 72 children split into 3 groups: 24:Aggressive role model (physical and verbal): 12 female, 12 male: 6 boys, 6 girls 24: Non-aggressive role model: 12 female, 12 male: 6 boys, 6 girls. 24: Control Children in these groups observed the model and were shown toys but not allowed to play with them, and were then taken in to a room with a bobo doll in it. Those who had observed the aggressive role model displayed aggressive behaviours, those with a non-aggressive model showed little no no aggression, with 1/3 of group one being verbally aggressive and none of group 2. In a follow up it was found that those in group one were more likely to be aggressive in their own play as they saw aggression being rewarded. Evaluating Social Learning Theory It enables us to increase our understanding of criminal behaviour Akers: probability of committing crime increases with exposure to criminals Ulrich: strongest cause of violence in adolescents is association with delinquents Fox and Bailenson: in a virtual reality, models similar to individuals in appearance were more likely to encourage individuals to carry out exercise in the 24 hours following observation, therefore identification is important Theory could make health campaigns more effective as the campaigns should match models to their target groups for more impact Andsager et al: perceived similarity to models in alcohol campaigns increase effectiveness of message as the potency is lost if individuals cannot identify with those in the campaign. Causality: does association with delinquents really lead to behaviours? Siegel and McCormick: those with deviant attitudes seek out those who are similar as this is more appealing to them as they are likely to have more fun. Complexity: Other explanations are disregarded, yet many different things interact in many ways to cause behaviours

[a-level-psychology]

The Behaviourist Approach

The behaviourists reject the vagueness of Wundt’s introspection and wish to focus on the events which are observable to us. A main assumption is that we are born “tabula rasa” (Locke), therefore all behaviours are determined by our environments. Due to learning processes being the same in humans and other animals, we can extrapolate findings. This approach suggests that we learn via two types of conditioning: Classical: whereby neutral stimulus that is constantly paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, as it takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus. Operant: whereby we learn through reinforcements and punishments. Behaviours followed by desirable consequences are more likely to be repeated in the future, and those that receive punishments are less likely to be repeated. Classical Conditioning We learn through the associations that we make. NS+UCS → Association
NS → CS → CR Pavlov’s Dogs: Dog salivate(UR) when presented with food(US). Pavlov sounded a bell (NS) alongside food when he presented it to the dogs, An association was made between the bell and the food, which meant that the bell could then create the salivation response on its own, even when it as not paired with the food. The bell has changed from a NS to a CS, producing a CR. Important features: Timing: NS shortly before US Extinction: CR not permanent and CS will not always produce it, after a few times of no association with US Spontaneous recovery: link made more quickly is CS and UCS paired together again Stimulus generalisation: CR can occur with other stimuli similar to CS Operant Conditioning We learn through the consequences we receive, so the likelihood of repeating a behaviour depends on the consequences of a behaviour. Behaviours that receive positive or negative reinforcements are more likely to be repeated, while those that receive punishments are less likely to be repeated. Positive reinforcement: pleasant consequence Negative reinforcement: Removal of an unpleasant stimulus Punishment: undesirable consequence Schedules of reinforcement are important, with continuous being best for establishing a response,and partial being best to maintain a response and avoid extinction. Skinner’s Rats: Skinner placed rats in a box, with levers inside. Positive reinforcement: When the rat presses the lever food is released. tis then increased the frequency of the rats pressing the lever as they wish to receive food Negative reinforcement: The rats were placed in a box and a current was passed through it. By pressing the lever the rats turned off the electric current. They learnt this and began to press the lever as soon as the current began, They even pressed the lever at a light as they had learnt that the light came of just before the shock started. Evaluating the behaviourist approach Classical conditioning as an explanation for behaviour has enabled successful treatments to be created such as systematic desensitisation which eliminates responses and replaces them by learning new associations. However, different species are faced with different challenges, so have different learning capabilities, therefore some species may find it easier to make connections Seligman: Preparedness- animals will learn associations needed for survival but not others Operant conditioning: Skinner relied on the scientific method, therefore we can establish causal relationships, allowing for clear cause and effect to be observed, increasing reliability But Skinner used rats and not humans, so therefore has been accused of speciesism- can we even use the findings if we have evolved? Can they be extrapolated? Other explanations for behaviour are completely ignored by this approach: what about cognitive factors, emotions, innate drives? Skinner: these factors are unscientific and unreliable as they cannot be tested, but all behaviours can be explained by conditioning and past experiences- even the complex

[a-level-psychology]

OCD: Treatment: Biological Approach

Drug therapies are often used to treat OCD Antidepressants: SSRIs: Prozac Used to increase levels of serotonin which are involved in the worry circuit, to normalize this circuit. This is to reduce the associated anxiety and regulate mood, by preventing the re-uptake of serotonin. Antidepressants: Tricyclics: Clomipramine Used more for OCD than depression, blocks the system reabsorbing serotonin and noradrenaline, leaving more in the synapse, therefore prolonging activity and easing the transmission. These target more than one neurotransmitter but cause a lot of side effects. Anti-Anxiety Drugs: Benzodiazepines(BZs): Slow down activity of CNS by enhancing GABA which dampens down activity in the brain, as a natural anxiety reducer. These react with GABA receptors, opening the channel to increase the flow of ions, slowing neuron activity and calming individuals. Other Drugs: D-Cycloserine Antibiotic used for TB, reduces anxiety, therefore could be effective in treating OCD, as in enhances transmission of GABA. Evaluation Drug treatments are effective Soomro et al: 17 studies, SSRIs more effective than placebos in OCD patients information only for 3-4 months: what about the long term? requires little effort from user, less time than CBT, no regular meetings Cheaper than other therapies Small discussions with doctors during review appointments can be beneficial Side effects can cause patients to stop taking drugs and some drugs to be avoided SSRIs: nausea, hadache, insomnia Tricyclics: more than SSRIs, hallucinations, irregular heartbeat, so only used when SSRIs have failed to work BZs: aggression, long term memory issues, addiction, so limited to use for 4 weeks. Koran et al: drug only work in the short term, therefore other treatments such as CBT should be tried first Maina et al: those on drug therapies tend to relapse after a few weeks of the treatment ending Turner et al: publication bias: the benefits of antidepressants are exaggerated, with positive reviews being more likely to be published, with negative studies being published in a positive light. Drug companies have a vested interest, so inappropriate judgements can be made based on inaccurate information, which can be damaging to patients

[a-level-psychology]

Depression: Treatment: Cognitive approach

CBT first developed by Ellis under the name rational therapy as the basis of it was correcting irrational thoughts and changing them to more rational ones, as this was thought to be the cause of depression. This them became rational emotive behavioural therapy, as not only did it challenge the thoughts but also changes behaviours. Challenging irrational thoughts: ABC model becomes ABCDEF model Disputing thoughts Logical: Does this make sense Empirical: Do i have any proof Pragmatic: How does this help me Effects of disputing//Effective attitudes Feelings produced change Homework Clients complete assignments between sessions to challenge the irrational beliefs and form rational ones. For example, someone with a fear of rejection may be asked to ask someone out for a drink. Behavioural activation Clients encouraged to engage in pleasurable activities, as often those with depression do not engage in behaviours they once found pleasurable. Unconditional positive regard Ellis: this is key in convincing someone of their worth. Therefore, the therapist will provide respect and appreciation to clients regardless of the situation, to encourage a change in attitudes. 
Evaluation Ellis: 90% success rate in REBT within 27 sessions, but it doesnt alway swork due to lack of engagement from client Cuijpers et al: 75 study review, CBT superior to no treatment Kutyen& Tsivrikos: 15% variation in effectiveness due to how competent the therapist is. Elkin et al: less suitable for those with rigid, resistant irrational beliefs Simons et al: high levels of stress reflecting realistic stressors means that therapy cant resolve issues Ellis: some clients don’t want to engage in the cognitive aspect, just want to share feelings Babyak et al: 156 depressives, exercise, drugs or combination for 4 months- all improve. After 6 months, those in exercise group have lower relapse rates. Antidepressants could be an alternative treatment, requiring less effort form the client and can be used in combination Cuijpers et al: CBT most effective when used alongside drugs. Rosenzweig: all treatments are equally effective: dodo bird effect: everyone wins. Only small differences found in success of treatments: Luborsky et al: reviewed 100 studies, only small differences in effectiveness, thought to be due to so many common factors in psychotherapies. Sloane: commonalities include talking to a sympathetic and ability to express thoughts, increasing self esteem

[a-level-psychology]

Phobias: Treatment: Behavioural Approach

Behavioural treatments are based on counter-conditioning, where new associations are learnt to overied the fear responses in individuals when p[resened with specific stimuli. Systematic Desensitisation- Wolpe Relaxation is taught by the therapist, with patients focusing on slow breathing and mindfulness, while practicing muscle relaxation. A desensitisation hierarchy is created which allows the patient to be introduced to their fears one step at a time, allowing the situation to become more familiar and anxiety to diminish die to the gradual introduction. In action: Patient is taught how to relax Desensitisation hierarchy formed, with each stage causing more anxiety than the last Say the word spider Look at a picture of a spider Have a spider in a closed box in the same room Spider in an open box on a table next to patient Spider loose in room with patient Patient holds spider Patient works through this hierarchy practicing relaxation at each stage Patient masters a step and moves onto the next Patient completely masters feared situation Evaluating systematic desensitisation This is successful to treat many phobias McGrath: 75% response rate Choy et al: in vivo more effective than in vitro Comer, in vitro, in vivo and modelling all used to tackle phobias Ohman et al: More appropriate for personal than evolutionary phobias Fast, less effort needed than other treatments such as CBT Suitable for those who do not know the root cause of their phobias Able to be self administered Flooding Rather than gradual exposure, there is one session with phobia at it’s worst, with patient practicing relaxation. For example, an agrophobe will be placed in a room full of spiders. This can be conducted in vitro or in vivo. The relaxation techniques that would have been previously learned would be used during the 2-3 hour session, in which adrenaline levels would decrease (they have a time limit) and new links will be made between feared stimulus and relaxation. In action: Patient taught how to completely relax muscles. Placed in a room full of spiders Patient masters feared situation in one session. Evaluating flooding This can be too traumatic for some to complete the session Due to this, individuals can quit at any point during the session If people quit, the treatment will not work This is quicker than CBT Choy: more effective than systematic desensitisation if completed Craske et al: just as effective as systematic desensitisation Evaluating behavioural approach to treatment Some have argued that the relaxation element may not be that important, with the exposure and expectation of being able to cope being the most important factors. Klein et al argue that the active ingredient is hopefulness that a phobia can be overcome The psychodynamic approach suggests that phobias develop due to projections. Therefore, treating a specific phobia can lead to symptom substitution Freud: Little Hans: phobia of horses due to envy of father, which was cured upon acceptance of feelings towards father

[a-level-psychology]

Depression: Explanation: Cognitive Approach

Ellis’ ABC model (1962) Ellis proposed that depression develops via an ABC model: Activating event Beliefs as a response to this, which can be rational or irrational Consequences of these beliefs, which can be healthy or unhealthy Example: A: Individual gets fired from work B: “There were too many staff”// “They’ve never liked me C: Acceptance, seek new job// Depression, I’ll never get another job Musturbatory thinking This is the source of irrational beliefs as individuals believe there are certain things which must happen or be true in order to be happy. There are three most important beliefs: I must be approved of or accepted by those important to me I must do very well, else I am worthless The world must give me happiness, else I will die Other beliefs of this sort include “the world must treat me fairly”, “people must live up to my expectations” Often these beliefs are achievable, so people that have them end up disappointed or depressed due to irrational beliefs. Therefore, the “musts” which are irrational must be challenged to encourage positive mental health. Beck’s Negative Triad(1967) Those with depression feel the way that they do due to negative interpretations of the world, lacking a perceived sense of control. Negative schemas During childhood, those with depression have developed negative schemas, often as a result of rejection or criticism. Later on in adulthood, these schemas become activated in new situations which resemble the original situations in which they were learned, These schemas lead to systematic cognitive biases and over-generalisations to be made regarding self worth based on one small event. The Negative Triad Is an irrational and pessimistic view of three key elements which make up a belief system of an individual: Negative view of self Negative view of the world Negative view of the future Evaluation or cognitive explanations for depression Research has provided support for the role of irrational thinking: Hammen and Krantz: when interpreting written materials, depressed participants make more errors in logic. Bates et al: when given negative automatic-thought statements, depressed participants become more depressed. (Not very ethical) However, we do not know if the thoughts lead to depression or if the depression leads to the thoughts. Those with faulty thinking could have a genetic vulnerability to depression. In this explanation, the client is responsible for their situation, therefore they have control over how to make things better. While this is a strength, this could lead to situational factors which are contributive being overlooked, blaming the disorder entirely on the mind and not the environment. CBT is effective in treating depression, therefore it is clear that thoughts do have a role to play, as challenging these thoughts alleviates symptoms Cuijpers et al: CBT is effective as a treatment for depression alongside drug therapies Alloy and Abrahmson suggest that the beliefs we see to be irrational are actually just the depressd individuals seeing things how they actually are rather tan having a sugar coated view. For example, the depressed were more accurate in estimates of the likelihood of accidents, therefore could be seen as “sadder but wiser” Alternative explanations are ignored in this explanation. Genes could be linked to depression along with neurotransmitters such as serotinin levels being decreased, and the gene that causes this is ten times more likely to be found in those with depression,a s suggested by Zhang et al. The success of drug therapies in the treatment of depression also supports the role of neurotransmitters in depression, therefore faulty cognition is not the only factor. This suggests that a diathesis-stress approach may be more appropriate. This approach suggests that those with depression can help themselves by changing their thoughts, however, it fails to mention that it isn’t easy to change thoughts that we have had for an extended period of time, and for somebody with depression and faulty cognitive processes, this would be an even harder task to do.

[a-level-psychology]

OCD: Explanation: Biological Approach

Genetic Explanations For OCD: The COMT gene

Involved in production of catechol-o-methyltransferase, regulating productions of dopamine, a neurotransmitter which is linked to OCD. One allele of this gene has been found to be more common in those with OCD which causes higher levels of dopamine as the gene is underactive (Turk et al).

The SERT gene

Involved in the transportation of serotonin which leads to a decrease in the levels of this. In OCD patients, there is a lower level of serotonin. Ozaki et al found mutations in this gene in 6/7 individuals from two separate families with OCD, which causes lower levels of serotonin.

Diathesis-Stress

While genes cause a vunlerability, stressors in an individuals life must trigger the onset of OCD. Many people may have the COMT or SERT genes associated with OCD but not actually have the disorder due to a lack of environmental stressors.

Neural Explanations for OCD Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters Dopamine increase linked to OCD Szechtman et al found stereotyped movements of OCD in animals with high levels of dopamine induced.

Serotonin decrease linked to OCD

Pigott et al: antidepressants increasing levels or serotonin have beneficial effects on OCD symptoms, while Jenicke found that antideoressants which do not have as much effect on levels of serotonin do not have such a beneficial effect on the symptoms of OCD Abnormal brain circuitsAreas in the pre-frontal lobe are thought to be abnormal in those with OCD: Caudate Nucleus in basal ganglia is in control or suppressing signals from the orbitofrontal cortex which is in control of alerting the thalamus to hazards. In those with OCD, the caudate nucleus is thought to be damaged, therefore fails to suppress minor signals of hazards, leading to a worry circuit

This is supported by evidence from PET scans. Both serotonin and dopamine are inked to these areas of the brain. Comer: serotonin key in OFC and caudate nuclei, so this could lead to the malfunctioning Sukel: High levels of dopamine leads to overactivity of basal ganglia. Evaluation of Biological approach in explaining OCD Family and twin studies suggest that there is a link between genetics and OCD Nestadt et al found that those with a first degree relative with OCD are five times more likely to develop the disorder themselves during their lifetimes as compared to the general population. Billet et al: meta-analysis 14 OCD twin studies, MZ twice as likely to get OCD if co-twin has it that DZ. But, as concordance rates are not 100%, we cannot say that genetics are entirely responsible. There are no genes that are specific to OCD, only ones which predispose to obsessive behaviours Pauls and Leckman: OCD is one expression of the same gene which is linked to tourettes, autism and anorexia nervosa, Rasmussen and Eisen: 2/3 with OCD suffer at least one episode of depression. Menzies et al found reuced grey matter in the OFC of patients with OCD and their relatives. This suggests that anatomical differences are linked, and these will be inherited, supporting the role of biology in OCD. If this is true, in the future we could dteect OCD risks with brain scans. This could lead to the screening of fertilised eggs to detect certain genes and get rid of those with the undesirable ones. It could also lead to gene therapies allowing us to turn certain genes off. Both of these are unethical outcomes- the genes may have other benefits The explanation is too simple and reductionist, and gives hope for preventative measures of disorders, which isn’t achievable or desirable. This approach ignores other explanations, such as the two process model where a stimuli such as dirt becomes associated with anxiety and is therefore avoided, leading to an obsessive avoidance and engagement in other activities which lead to a further reduction in anxieties. This explanation is supported by success of ERP, which Albucher et al reports is beneficial in 60-90% OCD cases

[a-level-psychology]

Phobias: Explanation: Behavioural Approach Two-Process Model

Mowrer(1947) suggested that there are two stages to phobias, with the first being linked to classical conditioning and the second being linked to operant conditioning. Process One: Initiation: Classical Conditioning Individuals develop phobias due to an association being formed between a neutral stimulus(NS) and an unconditioned response(UCR), with the neutral stimulus(NS) becoming a conditioned stimulus(CS), thus producing fear(CR) Process Two: Maintenance: Operant Conditioning Individuals escape or avoid the feared stimulus to reduce fear (negative reinforcement), which leads to continuous avoidance of a situation. Social Learning Theory Individuals can acquire phobias through watching the behaviours of others and imitating these due to the behaviour we observe appearing rewarding. Case study: Little Albert: Watson&Rayner The study used an 11 month old boy named “Little Albert” who displayed no fear towards white furry objects to begin with. Every time Albert reached out to touch a white rat, Watson and Rayner would strike the bar with hammer behind his head to produce fear. This was done three times and then again a week later. Once this had been completed, Little Albert was fearful of white rats, with this fear generalising to all white fluffy objects. White Rat(NS) →No Response Loud Noise(UCS) → Fear Response(UCR) Loud Noice(UCS)+White Rate(NS) →Fear Response(UCR) White Rat(CS) → Fear Response(CR) Evaluation: Behavioural explanation of phobias Classical conditioning is clearly important as Sue et al found that many people with phobias can recall an event which seems to be the trigger, however, not all people can recall such an event Ost suggests that this could be due to a traumatic experience being forgotten Sue et al suggest that different phobias may have different causes at their roots Phobias may not always develop due to classical conditioning, but may only develop is we have a genetic vulnerability to this which is triggered by a life event Di-Nardo et al: not everyone that gets bitten by a dog then develops a fear of dogs Bandura and Rosenthal demonstrate that social learning does have a role to play, as they found that when a model acts as though they are in pain at the sound of a buzzer, those who observe this become fearful of the sounds of buzzers. Biological preparedness could explain why phobias following traumatic events do not always occur Seligman suggests that animals are programmed to learn associations between life threatening stimuli and fear, which could explain ancient fears such as those of snakes and heights occur more frequently that fears of modern things which were not previously a threat. Bregman found that they couldn’t condition a fear response in infants 8-16 months by pairing a loud bell with wooden blocks, and suggests that this could be because fear responses will only present with living things as these are ancient fears which are adaptive for us to avoid Due to thus, it means that behavioural explanations on their own are not enough to give full explanation of phobias. Cognitive factors are also ignored by this explanation- phobias can occur due to irrational thinking, for example being scared of lifts because “ I could get trapped in this lift and die”. The role of faulty thinking is clear as treatments such as CBT are effective in treatments of mental disorders