Artefactology

Thoughts and bits on artefacts and archaeology, highlighting Anglo-Saxon and Viking craft.

[artefactology]

  source: vikingrune.com

As I’ve been doing quite a bit of musing about the Nene River Ring and its two contrasting bezels lately, I’ve been asked about different variations of the valknut symbol, and whether or not it was adopted and adapted by Christianity. I’ve come across a few sources that state that the valknut comes in various different forms, including one with rounded edges (aka. triqueta) frequently seen in Celtic cultural contexts. Whilst these ‘variations’ may hold similar meanings, I’m not convinced that they are closely related. I am no expert on Viking/Celtic/Christian symbolism, but I am keen to argue against lumping the valknut and triqueta forms together as one.

In recent papers I’ve presented to conferences I’ve briefly mentioned the valknut symbol and its presence on stone monuments in the British Isles. This blog post was inspired after seeing a picture one of these monuments, regrettably after the fact, and going on to hunt down these supposed valknutted artefacts to see for myself.  The first object that inspired this investigation is the hogback stone from Brompton, Yorkshire, that has been described as having the valknut symbol carved onto its side. This particular stone is Brompton 4 (Lang 1984), or Brompton 19 (Lang 2001). Upon viewing the picture, I was pretty disappointed. The supposed valknut is in the Celtic triqueta form, which, I agree, is loosely visually similar to the valknut (primarily its unicursal style), and similar in cultural affiliation, but is inherently different in terms of ideology and use.  The valknut and triquetra are frequently mentioned as one in the same, but I would really argue against this.

Brompton hogback stone. Photo: Jamie Barnes

Unicursal

I must say first that the term ‘valknut’ is a relatively modern Norwegian word.  It was not called this during the Viking age. Therefore we lack any substantial written evidence as to what this symbol actually means.  The term itself means ‘knot of the slain.’ The most we can say, based on its artistic context, is that it is somehow connected to the ideas of death, sacrifice, burial, or the underworld.  It is also frequently linked to the god Odin (See Nene River Ring and Valknut), and his ability to ‘bind and unbind’ the minds of people, and has thus been called ‘Odin’s knot’.  It may also refer to the web of life, and the weaving of the strands of destiny. There are two types of the original valknut: the unicursal and the tricursal. The unicursal is the earliest form, made of a single line that creates the design. It is seen twice on a 7th century rune stone from Tängelgårda, Lärbro parish, Gotland, Sweden, underneath the legs of horse in a warrior scene. The tricursal form is visible in the Viking Age, and has three triangles that are linked together. In both cases the lines/triangles can either be snuggly fit together or loosely, so that blank space can be seen.

The triquetra, also called the trinity knot or a trifold knot, is typically described as a symbol of the Holy Trinity. Its original form is a singular ribbon that loops around three times to create a threefold, triangular shape.  It can also be depicted within a circle, supposedly to represent spiritual unity.  The exact origin for the symbol is generally unknown.  Some claim that it can be traced back to Neolithic times representing the trinity of sky, earth, and the sea.  It may also refer to the connection of the mind, body, and the soul. The triquetra is mostly known as a Celtic symbol, predominantly within Christian contexts. Within the 9th century ‘Book of Kells,’ the triquetra can be seen within the many patterns of interlace. It is also known in Scandinavia, as it is found on a few runestones, like rune stone G181 from Gotland, Sweden, seen below, which is dated to the Viking-Age (AD 800-1100). (1)

Runestone G181 from Gotland, Sweden.

This runestone was originally found at a church. On this stone, the triquetra can be seen to the right of the three figures at top.  The runic inscription states, ‘Hróðvisl and Farbjôrn and Gunnbjôrn’, in short-twig, younger futhark runes. There are arguments on whether or not these three names relate to the first three figures in the top panel, or the three in the main panel below them. The runestone has also been interpreted to represent the trinity of Odin, Thor, and Freyr, who may actually be the three figures at the top, associated with the triquetra (1). The three in the lower register therefore may be the three mentioned in the inscription, and considering the objects they hold (spear, mace, and sickle, objects representing authority, justice, and fertility), they may be the three priests of Odin, Thor, and Freyer, or they may be three men holding offices within the Swedish state. Furthermore, the triquetra seen here could actually BE a valknut, just a stylised unicursal version, considering its context associated with the Norse gods.

Strap-Ends from Flixborough, with the triquetra visible near the bottom of each. Source: Thomas 2000, cat. nos. 325 and 326.

Triquetra symbols are found significantly more on insular art (created in Britain and Ireland) than valknuts are. In the late Anglo-Saxon world, they are present on two strap-ends from Flixborough, North Lincolnshire (2), which was an important Anglo-Saxon settlement site, possibly the site of a monastery. The triquetra is also seen as a shoddy drawing on a piece of leather, possibly a sword scabbard, from Coppergate, York (3), dated to the 10th and 11th centuries (Viking Age).  The triquetra is also visible on the impressive Gosforth Cross, in Gosforth Village, Cumbria (4). Standing 14 feet 5 inches, the cross dates to AD 950-1000 and depicts scenes of Old Norse myth and Christian belief. Present are the Norse Gods of Thor, Odin, Loki, Mimir, and Heimdallr, as well as Christ crucified.  At the very top of the cross on either side are 4 triquetras forming the cross shape. The scenes on the cross are believed to represent the conquering of Christianity over the old pagan beliefs. Or rather, “the fall of the old gods and the establishment of the Church,” through scenes from the Norse Ragnarok, in which a series of events leads to the death of the old world and rebirth of a new one (4). Triquetras quite frequently are placed on the outer arms of crosses, either individually or as parts of continuous interlacing lines. Here on the Gosforth cross they carry a very strong Christian significance.

The Gosforth Cross. Source: Burg 1958

The triquetra is also visible on many cross slabs on the Isle of Man. They appear on cross slabs of Scandinavian and pre-Scandinavian artistry, including some with Anglo-Saxon decoration (and one with Anglo-Saxon runes). Their frequency and often graffiti-like appearance on the monuments on the Isle of Man may suggest that they were seen more as decorative than symbolic motifs, but their presence nevertheless represents the influence of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, particularly on the cross slabs with purely Scandinavian artistic display (5, pg 60). On the stone slab 101 from Kirk Michael Church, the triquetra is seen next to symbols of the resurrection (a cockerel) and of the Holy Ghost, with a possible representation of the Holy Trinity.  Another monument, Kirk Bride 97 (seen below), popularly called Thor’s Stone, also has the triquetra beside a cockerel, suggesting that the symbol might represent Christ’s resurrection (5, Plate XLVII).  Being located between Ireland and Britain, the Isle of Man is a melting pot of Irish, Scottish, and English contacts, and this is well represented on the numerous stone monuments on the island.  There are many different variations of the triquetra found on these monuments, but none of them resemble the original valknut. They are all clearly the Celtic trinity knot, contained within completely Christian contexts, and possibly symbolising resurrection, rebirth, and the dominion of Christianity over the old world.

Triquetra Designs on Scandinavian Crosses on the Isle of Man. 1) Bride 97; 2,6) Michael 101; 3,4) Michael 105; 5) Michael 104; 7) Braddan 109; 8) Andreas 103. Source: Kermode 1994

Bride 97 (Kermode 1994), ‘Thor’s Stone.’ The triquetra can be seen faintly on side A (right) at the very top to the right of the cockerel. Source: A Manx Notebook

From my research, the valknut on the River Nene finger-ring is the only one of its kind in Britain or Ireland. Apparently there are symbols ‘resembling’ the valknut found on ‘certain cremation urns’ from early Anglo-Saxon burials in East Anglia alongside images of wolves and horses, according to Hilda Roderick Ellis Davidson (5), but she fails to give any further information about these supposed urns. I am leaning towards the assumption that these ‘similar symbols’ are either the swastikas that are verified within the archaeological record to be on Anglo-Saxon cremation urns, or variations of the triskele (seen below), another Germanic symbol of trinity. Seen on artwork from the Neolithic to the Anglo-Saxon period and beyond, the triskele is often in the form of three animal heads in Anglo-Saxon art. Like the triquetra, it has its foundations in Pre-Celtic and Celtic artwork, and was adopted as a symbol of the Holy trinity in Christianity.

Faversham Brooch, Anglo-Saxon, c.  AD 600-650. Garnet cloisonne bird’s heads in the form of a triskele (Source: The British Museum)

The triskele symbol has also been described as a triquetra in some instances. Like on a 5th-6th century picture stone from Gotland, Sweden, in which an image more closely resembling a triskele than a triquetra is represented by three snakes. This stone may symbolize the three institutions of the Swedish state (1), similar to runestone G181 from Gotland, that has been previously discussed.

I was asked at a recent conference whether the valknut has Christian versions. There seems to be a universal religious, spiritual, or secular importance to the number 3, and the idea of a supreme or divine trinity.  Whether this reigning trinity refers to the father, son, and the Holy Ghost, the mind, body, and soul, the earth, sky, or sea, the past, present, and future, or any spiritual trio, symbols of three are visible in basically every culture in history.  Because the term ‘valknut’ is a relatively new term, we could, in theory, use it to describe any symbol that is a triangular shape made up of three smaller triangular shapes.  The same goes for the term ‘triquetra,’ of which any 3-armed symbol could qualify. Valknuts are traditionally only associated with Scandinavia (with the exception of the River Nene ring) and Old Norse mythology, whereas the triquetra is seen in various cultures and contexts, predominantly within Christian settings. They may both hold similar connotations of the Gods and death, but the triquetra has been taken an adapted by many people, oftentimes to symbolise something a bit more personal. Nowadays it seems more like an ethereal symbol of Celtic mysticism found on jewellery and other ‘Celtic’ trinkets.

It is difficult to find valid sources on the history and meaning of Celtic symbols. Most are described using fanciful and ethereal language that brings to mind fairies and druids.  Basically, there are various meanings and interpretations behind Celtic symbolism, and most scholars and experts tend to avoid giving a concrete definition.  It is my belief that the Valknut was created separately from the triquetra, most definitely in Scandinavia, and faded out of use upon the spread of Christianity, when it either evolved into the triquetra or was completely abandoned in favor of the trinity knot.  The triquetra, regardless of its origin, evolved from a purely pagan symbol and took on a new significance within Celtic Christianity.  It was then adopted throughout cultures in the British Isles to represent their conversion to the Church, and seems to have been overused to the point where it was no longer a special isolated symbol but rather an almost meaningless Christian motif. It is my belief, therefore, that the valknut and the triquetra should be visually, literally, and theoretically distinct from each other.

  References:

de Vries, H. 2015. Sverige. <http://www.hubert-herald.nl/Sverige3.htm&gt;

Thomas, G. 2000. A Survery of Late Anglo-Saxon and Viking-Age Strap-Ends from Britain. PhD Dissertation, University College London.

Mould, Q. Carlisle, I. and Cameron, E. 2003. Craft, Industry and Everyday Life: Leather and Leatherworking in Anglo-Scandinavian and Medieval York. The Archaeology of York: The Small Finds. Vol. 17

Burg, K. 1958. The Gosforth Cross. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 21, No. 1/2 (Jan. – Jun., 1958)

Kermode, P.M.C. 1994. Manx Crosses. Balgavies, Angus: The Pinkfoot Press.

Davidson, H.R.E. 1964. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe.

    Valknut or ValkNOT? As I've been doing quite a bit of musing about the Nene River Ring and its two 

[artefactology]

  source: The British Museum

I previously touched on one design on the Nene River Anglo-Saxon finger-ring, and this entry serves as a discussion of its complementary design and its further implications. Whilst the first motif represents Old Nordic spiritualism and myth, the design of interest here is a symmetrical pattern of circular interlace closely resembling Celtic knots. I am arguing that this design is meant to represent a Christian cross, creating a fascinating juxtaposition of religious and cultural ramifications surrounding the River Nene finger-ring.  The ring itself is traditionally labelled as an Anglo-Saxon work of art, but it seems to me to be an item symbolizing an amalgamation of beliefs and perceptions in early medieval Britain.

  Source: Meaney 1981, 174

The Nene River finger-ring is a prime example of the high level of gold-work and skill that was achieved in the early medieval period.  Dated to the 9th century on stylistic grounds, it is a bold ring with a diameter of 2.7 cm (27mm).  Made of thick gold, it is unique amongst its contemporaries as it has two bezels. Along the rod hoop are incised interlaced-lines, and trios of large gold granules mark the junctions of the hoop and the bezels.  Marking the outer circumference of the bezels are incised zig zag lines.  On one of the bezels is an engraved Valknut (see: River Nene Ring and Valknut), representing an Old Norse ideology. On the other bezel is an incised circular design.  It is made up of a continuous looping line, creating a quatrefoil motif in the centre and numerous arcs and curves. Unlike its partner design, this one is hard to match to a particular symbol, but it seems to represent a version of Celtic and Anglo-Saxon interlace seen widely on early medieval sculpture and religious manuscripts in Britain and Ireland.

The River Nene finger-ring along with other gold prestigious late Anglo-Saxon rings in the British Museum. Note the two royal rings of Aethelwulf and Aethelswith, also with religious imagery. Source: the British Museum

The seemingly endless and symmetrical design appears to have been made with a compass, with high level of geometry and artistic skill. If one traces the line around, it is a continuous path that creates a complex pattern of curves and circles that eventually brings one back to where they started.  Further observation reveals a number of hidden crosses as well as a singular gap between two points, which can be seen at the top left of the title image.  This gap could have been accidental, although it could very well have been intentional, as instances defined as ‘breaks’ are recognized in Anglo-Saxon interlace as moments where the ribbons suddenly change direction, dividing the pattern into distinct sections (1).  Both the Valknut symbol on the opposite bezel and the looping design discussed here have been suggested to be artistic and symbolic ways of diverting the ‘evil eye,’ as their lines converge and move in ways that are visually confusing (2). Being as an exact replica of the circular design has yet to be found in an early medieval context, it seems to be a unique innovation of the artist, possibly for such a reason as baffling and detracting evil, but the Christian connotations cannot be ignored either.

  Celtic Shield Knot

Celtic Shield Knot

The desire to achieve balance and structure whilst representing the interconnectedness of life, time, and faith was strived for in early Christian art (3).  It is difficult to certainly define the design on the River Nene ring as interlace, considering the line does not weave over and under itself as is the point of interlace, but it can be argued that it is interlace inspired.  The images above are two similar examples of the Celtic knots creating cross motifs that can be found in the book of Kells.  Celtic interlace patterns were adapted to suit the narrative of Christianity, and variations were used for stone crosses, on ecclesiastical metalwork, and within religious manuscripts. Celtic knots therefore were adapted by the Anglo-Saxons to become a symbol of Christian faith. Interlace was also used by the Picts, evident on stone slabs and crosses from Meigle, Perth and Kinross, Scotland, which was the site of an important Pictish monastery from the 8th to 10th centuries.

Stone slab from Meigle showing an open ring-knot within a square. Source: Canmore

  Base for the splayed-arm cross, showing the symmetry and square-grid pattern behind Anglo-Saxon interlace. Source: Hull 2003, 98.

The Anglo-Saxons started to use interlace in their artwork within the 7th century in ecclesiastic communities (1).  This was possibly motivated by Mediterranean or Germanic sources, although the style of interlace that arose on the British Isles was distinct.  This style was characterised by precise and thin lines tightly wound together within a symmetrical square grid, as opposed to the earlier 7th century style of thicker bands creating an “incoherent mess” (1, pg 329). The design on the River Nene ring reflects this later theocratical innovation of grid-based interlace. Similar self-sustaining circular knots with hidden crosses can be seen in the Book of Kells, on the Canons VI, VII, and VIII. Although not completely exact, this example illustrates the use of such a pattern in religious contexts.

  Source: Wikipedia – Book of Kells

  So the River Nene finger-ring appears to represent two opposing ideologies as well as different cultures placed together upon a precious object. Why? Did the owner have conflicting beliefs, and want to ‘cover ones bases,’ so to speak?  Could he or she decide day by day which god or religion they wanted to pray for, therefore flipping the ring around to suit?  Perhaps the one who owned it identified themselves as having different ethnicities or cultural affiliations. Being as the ring is of precious metal and depicts religious imagery, it probably was not owned by a civilian, but rather someone of ecclesiastical and/or aristocratic wealth.   However, I do wonder just how comfortable the ring would have been to wear. It doesn’t seem to be conducive to have a bezel on the side of your palm, and there isn’t a point to wear the bezels sidewise on the finger, so was the ring meant to be worn in the first place? Perhaps it was worn on a chain around the neck, or placed on a shrine or within a sacred place.  Perhaps instead of a finger-ring, it was a symbol, not meant to be worn but rather an object to be prayed or meditated upon.  The ring was found in a river, suggesting that it was a ritual deposit.  Considering the high number of artefacts that have been found in watery locations, it doesn’t seem likely that the ring was simply dropped into the river and lost.  It was most likely placed there for a reason.  Perhaps the owner, feeling betrayed by religion threw the ring into the river in an act of frustration, or perhaps the owner/owners threw it in during a ritual act.  Unfortunately, we may never know for sure.

The River Nene near Peterborough – Julian Dowse

No matter how the ring ended up in the River Nene, it is obvious that it was a very significant object.  It’s composition of thick gold, with delicate incised lines and large gold granules, makes it an item of prestige regardless of the designs and their meanings.  I am arguing, however, that it was (and is) a symbol of worldly ideology and spiritualism, bringing together two competing religions either in an attempt to express cultural or individual identity, appease whatever god would listen, or to represent the uncertainty and importance of religion itself in early medieval Britain.

  References:

Hines, J. 2003. The Anglo-Saxons from the Migration Period to the Eighth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective. Boydell Press

Meaney, A.L. 1981. Anglo-Saxon Amulets and Curing Stones. British Series, 96. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

Hull, D. 2003. Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Art: Geometric Aspects. Liverpool University Press.

Nene River Ring: A Symbol of Religious Dichotomy I previously touched on one design on the Nene River Anglo-Saxon finger-ring, and this entry serves as a discussion of its complementary design and its further implications.

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Bifrons Park Ring

Bifrons Park Ring. Copyright: Maidstone Museum 2015 Bifrons Park is located near Canterbury in Kent, a region known for its prolific Anglo-Saxon grave sites. Kent has given archaeologists rich burials such as the late 5th to mid 8th century cemetery in Buckland, Dover, and the 6th-8th century Finglesham cemetery, which revealed a glorious golden buckle.  Within an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Bifrons…

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Wheatley Hill Finger-Ring

source: The British Museum In 1993 whilst digging trenches for a house on Wheatley Hill, Durham, a silver alloy ring was uncovered. Dating to the 8th century AD, the ring is a band of silver with remnants of a gilded surface. Within beaded collars are three riveted bosses, of which one still holds a red glass inset. On the back of the hoop is the old English runic inscription [H]RING IC HATT [æ],…

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[artefactology]

Viking Whalebone Plaque from Scar, Orkney

The whalebone plaque discovered in a female Viking burial on the island of Sanday in Orkney (seen above, photo credit: the author) is a testament to the craftsmanship and resourcefulness of the Scandinavian people.  Skillfully carved with characteristically Scandinavian dragon or horse-like animal heads facing each other, geometric circles and dots, and a block-patterned border, the plaque is fundamentally identical to many others found in Norway, such as the two from Grytøy, Trondenes and Kvaefjord, Troms (image below [1]), Denmark, Sweden, and Viking-inhabited parts of Ireland and Scotland.  The manufacture and style of the known whalebone plaques are entirely similar, indicating a universal prototype between Scandinavian groups, and yet their symbolism and utilitarian values are less straightforward.

Functionally, these boards are believed to be medieval ironing boards for smoothing linen. The plaque from Birka, Sweden was found accompanied by a bun-shaped glass piece thought to have been heated up and used to press linen flat like an iron [2]. The plaque from Scar, however, was without its iron, as were many of the other boards, and is considerably lacking in signs of wear on its surface.  This may indicate either that it was rarely used as a linen smoother, or had another purpose altogether. 

It is suggested that these boards represent wealth among society. Being as the procurement of the bone was a rare and arduous feat, it’s possible that the material was an expensive commodity. Furthermore, the skill that was necessary for such artistry seems to be too elaborate for an item for every-day use [3].  Insight into Norse mythology shows that flax, “the seed of a woman,” relating to fertility, was sewn into linens by women and assumably then smoothed out on ceremonial whalebone plaques on Fridays for the goddess Freyja [1]. Another suggestion is that they were used as plates or serving platters for individuals of high-status, as some appear to have cut or slice marks on their surfaces [4].

The fact that these boards are predominantly found in women’s graves, a clear association with the female gender exists. Separated from their functional use in life they may now classify as a symbolic grave good in its archaeological context, or merely as a personal possession of the deceased. Whatever their intended function or purpose, these whalebone plaques are beautiful demonstrations of the artistry that the medieval Scandinavian people are known for.

References:

1. Owen, O. Dalland, M. 1999. Scar: A Viking Boat Burial on Sanday, Orkney. Scotland: Tuckwell Press.

2. Canadian Mysteries. http://www.canadianmysteries.ca/sites/vinland/ scripts/photo.php?fileName =../images/site/164345_2.jpg

3. Szabo, V.E. 2001. The Use of Whales in Early Medieval Britain. In: Lewis, C.P. (ed.) The Haskins Society Journal: Studies in Medieval History. England: Boydell Press. Vol. 137-157. 

4. The British Museum. Whalebone Plaque. http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_mla/w/whalebone_plaque.aspx

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Nene River Ring and Valknut

A gold ring was found in the Nene River near Peterborough in 1855 [1]. Dated from AD 700-900, the ring has two circular bezels set across from each other on the hoop with three granules of gold applied to each side. Now in the British Museum, the Nene River finger-ring is seen as a beautiful example of late Anglo-Saxon artistry, however, the incised decoration seems to imply a Viking influence.

Incised and set with niello are geometric patterns on the outside of both bezels as well as the the hoop. On one bezel is a delicate pattern of intersecting circles and loops, combining in the centre in a quatrefoil motif. On the other side is a design of three intersecting triangles.  This design, which has commonly been described without an interpretation, is a clear imitation of the Old Norse symbol for Valknut, an image of the occult.

Often accompanied with representations of the god Odin in Scandinavian artwork, Valknut is assumed to signify death and ideas surrounding death, including the afterlife, battle, and sacrifice [2]. Pronounced as Val-knoot, it is comprised of a rendition of valr, meaning ‘the dead’ or ‘the slain,’ and knut, meaning “knot,” therefore literally meaning “the knot of the dead/slain” [3,4].  Valknut has been found on numerous rune stones and objects in Scandinavia including the famous Oseberg ship burial, the grave of a prominent Viking lady. Engraved onto a bedpost that was buried with the ship in AD 834 [5].

Apart from the Nene River finger-ring, it has also been found on 10th century hogback grave markers in Yorkshire and a stone cross from Andreas, on the Isle of Man. On the 9th century Larbro picture stone in Gotland, Sweden, Valknut can be seen towards the top of the slab above a figure lying face down on a pyre [5]. Whether this is a representation of a human sacrifice to the god Odin or a funeral for a fallen warrior, it is difficult to say. The presence of birds on the stone could furthermore symbolize Odin, as he is often personified as an eagle, as well as two ravens. Regardless of the uncertain interpretation of the Larbro stone, Valknut very clearly is associated with the ideas of death, warriors, and of possibly the spirit of the fallen rising up into Valhalla.

So what does this mean for the Nene River ring? The interlaced triangle design has been interpreted as an amulet to distract the evil eye and keep malicious spirits away with confusing lines [6].  With this new interpretation as the Valknut, a very Scandinavian icon, the Nene River finger-ring appears to have been influenced by Viking artistry. Being as the Vikings rarely used gold for their ornaments, preferring silver, and the craftsmanship of the finger-ring closely resembles other intricate gold rings dated to the Late Anglo-Saxon period in Britain (ie. the gold rings found in the West Yorkshire Hoard, the Berkeley Castle ring, and the unprovenanced “Joan Evans ring” in the Ashmolean), we can say that the ring is of Anglo-Saxon make. 

The artistic influence of the Scandinavian immigrants in Britain beginning in the late 8th century can readily be seen on the more frequent items such as brooches, whilst the smaller and more scarce finger-rings have evidence that is not so obvious. The Nene River ring is just one of these that can be given a Scandinavian inspiration, and other finger-rings that I have studied will be discussed in future entries.

References:

1. Johnson, C. 2014. A Typological Assessment of Late Anglo-Saxon and Viking-Age Finger-Rings from Britain Dating from AD 600-1100 (Unpublished master’s thesis). University College London. London, UK.

2. Stone, A. 1999. The Knots of Death. Internet Book of Shadows. http://www.sacred-texts.com/bos/bos649.htm

3. The Viking Rune. http://www.vikingrune.com/2009/01/valknut-viking-symbol/

4. McCoy, D. The Valknut. Norse Mythology for Smart People. http://norse-mythology.org/symbols/the-valknut/

5. Borromean Triangles: A Viking Symbol. 2007. http://www.liv.ac.uk/~spmr02/rings/vikings.html

6. Meaney, A.L. 1981. Anglo-Saxon Amulets and Curing Stones. British Archaeological Reports, British Series, 96. Oxford.

Images:

The pictures of the Nene River ring have been retrieved from its description on the British Museum website. http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=85521&partId=1

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Introduction

I’ve decided to create this blog not only for my own documentation of interesting bits of archaeology, but also to connect with other individuals with similar interests, whilst perhaps contributing to the current knowledge on the subject.

I spent two years studying archaeology and artefacts at UCL in London, UK, and completed a master’s dissertation on late Anglo-Saxon and Viking age finger-rings found in Great Britain. This blog will also serve to highlight my favorite areas of this study and to continue my own thoughts, findings, and analyses. I will also share some photographs of archaeological/historical sites that I’ve visited. I hope that whomever reads my blog will find it interesting, thought provoking, and perhaps enlightening!

- Catherine