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Journalistic Code of Ethics in Africa

Africa is the world’s second largest continent in terms of both size as well as population in the world. The landmass is surrounded by the Mediterranean sea to the north, Red sea nd Suez Canal to the northeast, Indian Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent also includes Madagascar and a number of archipelagos which are included in the 54 fully recognized sovereign states alongside nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. The African Union, successor to the Organization of African Unity, was established in 2002 to offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent’s many countries.

The code of conducts for journalists and their institutions in African nations are as follows:- • Botswana Press Council (2003) • Democratic Republic of Congo - Congolese National press union (2004) • Press Union of Zaire (1990) • Egypt - Supreme council of the Press (1983) • Ethiopia - Ethiopian Free Press Journalists Assiociation (1998) • Ghana - Ghana Journalist Association (1994) • Guinea - Association of Guinean Journalists (1991/2004) • Guyana - Code of Conduct for Coverage of Elections (2001) • East Africa Free Press Assembly (2002) • Ivory Coast - Rights and Duties of the Ivorian Journalist (1992) • Kenya - Kenyan Union of Journalists - Media Council of Kenya (2007) • Liberia - Press Union of Liberia (1997) • Malawi - Media Council (1995) • Mali - Code of Ethics of the Malian Journalist (1991) • Niger - Charter of Professional Journalists (1997) • Nigeria - Nigerian Guilt Editors (1872) • Rwanda - Charter of Duties and Rights • Senegal - Sud Quotidien (1993) • Somaliland - Code of Conduct for 2005 Elections • South Africa - Broadcasting Complaints Commission - City Press (1982) - Code of Conduct of the Press Ombudsman and Appeal Panel - Independent News and Media - Johannesburg Star (1999) - Media Council - PRess Council (2011) - South African Broadcasting Corporation - Union of Journalists • Swaziland - National Association of Journalists (2007) • Tanzania – Code for election reporting (2010) - Code of Ethical Practice for broadcasters - Code of Ethical Practice for media managers and editors - Code of Ethical Practice for media owners and publishers - Code of Ethical Practice for media photographers and video producers - Code of Ethical Practice for news agency journalism - Code of Ethical Practice for public information and media advertisers - Guidelines for Ethical Reporting on Children - Journalists’ code of ethics and the rights of children - Media Code of Conduct for Election Reporting (2010) - Media Gender Code of Ethics (2009) • Togo – Togolese Media Observatory (1999) • Tonga - Media Council Broadcasting Code - Media Council General Code for News Media • Uganda – National Institute of Journalists (1999) • Zambia – Media Council • Zimbabwe – Zimbabwean Media Practitioners (2007)

The listed code of conducts have both common issues and some unique stand points. Most of the code of conducts from the African nations’ journalistic or press code of conduct have got the basic codes like defending freedom of speech, expression and information, refraining from plagiarism, defamation, slander and unformed accusations. The similar codes also include the duties of journalists should be truth based, avoid distortions on their report, abstaining to act from any attitude written, spoken or filmed likely to incite ethnic, racial, regional or religious conflict. Similarly, the journalists should show fairness, accuracy, honesty, responsibilities, decency and should seek the triumph of truth by an accurate, honest and fair report of ascertained and verified facts. As for advertisements and public announcements shall be accurate and clearly distinguishable from news. The journalists shall avoid practices which would tend to interfere with the right of an individual to a fair trial. Also, most of the code of conducts in the African nations have special provisions of revision given the revision fulfils certain criterias. Another commonality is the way photographs and visual stories should give an accurate picture of an event and not highlight an incident out of context.

In the same way, Some of the African Journalistic code of ethics also include Gender based code of ethics like the one in Botswana, (Press Council of Botswana Gender Code of Ethics ). It includes various code of conducts related to gender equality which are postulated to minimize gender based discrimination in the field of journalism. Also, many of the AFrican nations like Democratic Republic of Congo have multiple code of conducts published or postulated by multiple regulatory bodies (Congolese National Press Union and Press Union of Zaire). Meanwhile, some code of conducts like the one in Guyana, are made specifically to cover certain events (Code of Conduct for Coverage of Elections (2001)).

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Approaches to Media Ethics

Individual vs Communitarian approaches to ethics 

Media ethics is branch of media studies concerns itself with what media practitioners and regulators (and still others in some cases) should do.

- What is right and what is wrong?

Individualism and communitarian approaches are the two contrasting ideologies. In a society where individualism prevails such as the U.S., people regard themselves primarily as individuals, an it is more important to focus on individuals so that they can contribute to the community as and if they wish. In a communitarian society like Japan, people's opinions are just the opposite: People think of themselves as part of a group, and consider the community first since many individuals share that. In this aspect, Taiwan is more of a communitarian society, although the tendency is not as strong as in Japan. 

Individualism has more frequent use of "I" form. Decisions made on the spot by representatives during negotiation. People ideally achieve alone and assume personal responsibility. Vacations taken in pairs, even alone. In the mean time, Communitarian has more frequent use of "We" form. Decisions referred back by delegate to organization. People ideally achieve in groups which assume joint responsibility. Vacations in organized groups or with extended family. 

A central premise for Individualism is for your greatest self-interest long term, which will help others. It is guided by what will result in the individual’s best long-term interest, which ultimately are in everyone’s self interest. One will act ethically in the short run to avoid others harming him or her in the long run. However, one person’s short term self-gain may not be good for everyone in the long term. Ethical thought is grounded in communal values, established social standards and traditions, and considerations of the larger society. Best understood in the context of that community’s current and historical view of social welfare and related social interests, lending a certain level of cultural relativism to this perspective. Emphasizes the common good as an ideal while downplaying the values of individuality, autonomy and personal rights. This does include respect for human life and dignity, the common good also calls for concern for long term sustainability. At times, the common good may require all citizens to consider the needs of the broader community above the needs of any one individual, group, or organization. However, it is difficult to see how realistic it is to achieve a common set of global or even local values 

Deontological ethics

The term deontological comes from greek word “deon” meaning “duty”. This approach to ethical decisions holds that some moral principles are binding, regardless of consequences. This approach is duty based, action based approach, also called humanitarian approach. Deontologists do not look at how much good might be caused by an action. They look at the action itself, deciding whether it is prohibited or made obligatory by one of their rules. Usually, the rules are expressed negatively: do not lie, do not steal, and do not harm the innocent. In a few cases, the rules are expressed positively: keep your promises; treat all persons as beings with rights, tell the truth. These rules are often called constraints. A “constraint” is like a set of handcuffs – it stops you from doing something, even if you want to do it. about lying or killing that is simply wrong, regardless of what good you could accomplish by lying or stealing – or killing – in some particular case. When they are challenged on this, they have some very compelling answers: - “My duty is to make sure that I do not do evil. If I kill to save a life, by killing I am causing evil. My first duty is always to ensure that I am good in myself. Killing or lying or stealing would make me bad in myself.” - “If everyone followed my rules, then no-one would be killing, lying, or stealing, and evil would disappear in the world.” Deontologists say that the right is the only consideration. We cannot worry about what good may come into the world. Right and good are two different things, and we must worry about the first. Deontologists don’t have a lot of rules. In some cases, this gives them a fair amount of freedom. Since their rules forbid or require only certain actions, other actions are available to them. A deontologist would never say, “It is good to preserve the rain forest.” After all, preserving the rain forest is all about consequences and that is not what a deontologist looks at. So the deontologist might be able to chop away and not feel guilty. Deontologists might say, “respect the world God gave us” and respecting the world might require protecting the rain forest but that would not be why the deontologists did so. They would be acting to do what was a duty, and whether or not that saved the rain forest or cost a half a million poor people their jobs in those forests would not be their main motive In other cases, however, even one or two rules can make life very difficult. Immanuel Kant is one of the world’s great deontological thinkers. He is an absolutist. He established what are called the categorical imperatives. These are rules he feels all people must follow, and while there are only a few, imagine trying to follow them all the time. Non-absolutist deontologists, such as W. D. Ross hold that the consequences of an action such as lying may sometimes make lying the right thing to do.

Teleological Ethics

The word teleology comes from Greek ‘telos’ which means end or purpose. This is an ethics approach where actions are judged morally based upon their consequences. It is counter approach to the deontological ethics. One example of teleological ethics is ‘utilitarianism’. It states those actions right that produces the greatest number of happiness to the greatest number of people. For example: torturing someone to find the location of a ticking time bomb. While the torture for its own sake would be wrong, because it is done for the greatest good and to save lives, it can be understood to be the ethical thing to do. Another example of teleological approach is virtue ethics. Virtue ethics does indeed seek to maximize “happiness” it sees happiness in a much more personal way. This ethical theory argues the goal in the development of the human mind, spirit and body to the fullest potential possible.

Situational Ethics

Joseph Fletchers first postulated this theory during the 1960s. It is Christian ethical theory. In situational ethics right and wrong depend upon the situation. There are no universal, moral rules or rights. Each case is unique and deserves a unique solution. It teaches that ethical decisions should follow flexible guidelines rather than absolute rules. Since circumstances alter cases situationalism holds that in practice what in sometimes and places e call right in other times and places it can be wrong. This approach says that actions aren’t considered bad and harmful until and unless it is performed with a wrong intension. This ethics says end can justify means.

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City lights. #Kathmandu #CityLights #Valley #tihar #deepawali #diwali #nepal #cityscapes (at Godawari, Nepal)

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Lets get immersed into the clouds. #Chandargiri #cablecar #ropeway #nepal #clouds (at Chandragiri - चन्द्रागिरी)

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Lake Indrasarowar, Markhu Rural Municipality, Makwanpur, Nepal. Sept. 2017 #indrasarowar #kulekhani #markhu #nepal

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Upside down.

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@aseemfoto solti stares from the window. #traveldiary #tb #portraitingmyfriends #highwayhues #nepal #easternnepal #busride

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Digital Development and Role of Developing Countries : Assignment 4 (ICT4D)

Developing countries’ economic prospects have long been heavily dependent on the industrial economies. As countries develop, the requirements for information increases. Connectivity is a crucial factor in the future prosperity of developing nations. When trade between developing and industrial countries grows and cross-border capital mobility increases, the developing countries will have a greater impact on the global economy. The main factors driving this increase in trade are the reduction of trade barriers through trade liberalization and other reforms, lower transport and communication costs, and relatively high GDP growth in developing countries. Therefore the developing countries should have strong solutionsagainst failure which arises from the difficulty of verifying quality and the need to gather as much information about quality as is feasible or to find ways of reducing the need for it. An employer must be sure of the skills of a prospective employee facing a difficult of quality verification problem. As communities grow and establish links with other communities, institutions of various kinds come into existence to share information about quality. The uncertainty that consumers face in determining quality can create severe inefficiencies or even destroy a market. Institutional weakness often hurts the poor most. Legal rules and social conventions, institutions and governments, all determine how much information people have and the quality (that is, the accuracy and completeness) of that information. Traditional societies with little personal mobility often exhibit extraordinary information flows and an extraordinary ability to uphold social arrangements through various sanctions. Embracing technology to respond to challenges such as corruption, poor quality of services, low citizen engagement and trust, old-fashioned leadership, and resistance to innovation in government. As the use of information and communication technology by governments increases so corruption decreases. The technological revolution provides countries with unique opportunities to reinvent themselves and overcome the “developing country” status. Estonia did it, and is one of the best examples for small and large countries to follow. We cannot expect developing nations to fund their own emergence into the digital age—the financial hurdles are simply too high. We are living in an era of technological revolution that is disrupting and transforming business, government and society alike. All are being challenged to adapt and keep up with the change. Similarly, developing countries are lagging behind other nations to keep up with the development of the digital trend. Main factor behind it is the unstable financial situations of most of developing nations. Finance is important to every individual and firm, but good financial institutions are also vital for the functioning of the entire economy.Research confirms that countries with more-developed financial institutions grow faster, and that countries with weak ones are more likely to have financial crises, with adverse effects on growth sometimes lasting years after. As we know that developing nations are not in the state of investing on such digital trend due to its weakness other basic factors, therefore, aidgiven by governments and other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social, and political development of developing countries will be beneficiary for improving information sharing process.

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Open Data System in Nepal: Assignment 3 (ICT4D)

Open data is the idea that some data should be freely available to everyone to use and republish as they wish, without any restrictions from copyright, patents or other mechanisms of control. The ability to share and use data resulting from recent advancements in technology and internet connectivity is an important opportunity for Nepal, whether it be economically, socially or environmentally. Data provides the evidence needed by government officials, politicians, civil society, media and the private sector to inform decisions, stimulate innovation, enable accountability and ultimately improve the state of development of any nation. However in Nepal, despite the technological advancements, data from government is not yet systematically shared in open formats and thereby not used widely by the range of people who could be supporting the government’s efforts to grow the economy, reduce poverty and address other socio-economic issues. Likewise, open Data Government is the concept of publicly and systematically sharing data from government in a format that enables it to be downloaded, analysed and used by the country’s citizens. Global momentum for Open Government Data is growing and many governments around the world are now sharing their data. Open Government Data in Nepal has the potential to bring a positive difference in society and people's lives. Open Government Data enables citizens to better understand  policies that have been enacted, engage with government decision-making, and hold the legislative accountable. Likewise, it holds great potential to improve the effectiveness of development efforts as, with better access to government data, development actors can target their programs more effectively to the issues and communities that need most support.   During the Nepal Earthquake 2015, open source and data played an important role to bring a huge difference in relief approach. An open source project like OpenStreetMap collaborated thousands of local and international volunteers to create data and tools. Responding agencies used the team's work to plan and execute their operations. In the aftermath of the earthquake, about 8,000 local and international OpenStreetMap community members worked to create detailed map of affected areas, which first respondents used for planning and mobilizing their resources. A task of this scale would not have been possible with only local mappers. Because many of these mappers were first-timers, resources like LearnOSM.org were invaluable in getting them up to speed. Coordination between thousand of mappers was done using the Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team's tasking manager, an open source tool that has been used in several disaster situations and is continuously being improved. Kathmandu Living Labs then took the open data gathered by "digital humanitarians" through OpenStreetMap to relay needs of survivors and victims to volunteers on the ground. The responding units and organizations needed training on OpenStreetMap as well as custom maps for specific purposes and missions. After the earthquake, OpenStreetMap was adopted by most agencies. Due to its level of details, it was used as a default map source. In Nepal, we have companies like Open Nepal that works to spread awareness and create availability, accessibility and use of information and data in Nepal. Open Nepal builds a community of suppliers, infomediaries, and data users to catalyze the information ecosystem in Nepal. It is more open, participative and citizen-centered approach to development by increasing access to information about key development processes, including data about aid, budget, expenditure, public services, demographic information, and much more.

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Addressing Information Problem : Assignment 2 (ICT4D)

Knowledge is a crucial part of- as well as the factor for- development. There are basically two types of knowledge important for development and growth -- knowledge of technology and knowledge of attributes. Knowledge about technology,which we also call technical knowledge or simply know-how includes the knowledge about nutrition, birth control, software engineering, or accountancy. These kind of know-hows are less in developing counties when compared to industrial and developed countries. We call these unequal distributions across and within countries knowledge gaps. On the other hand, knowledge about attributes includes the knowledge of the quality of a product, the diligence of a worker, or the creditworthiness of a firm—all crucial to effective markets. We call the difficulties posed by incomplete knowledge of attributes as 'Information Problems'.

Knowledge about attributes is very important for markets to function smoothly. To addresses such problems government to step in and  establish standards and certification so that the markets can function properly and everyone benefits from it. We can take Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) as an example which has a stringent set of guidelines for the packaging and labeling of milk to ensure the best quality and safety of this essential of milk product for consumers, many of whom are infants and children. When India’s National Dairy Development Board acted to ensure the quality of milk, its program doubled the incomes of a million milk producers. Rich countries have more-diverse and more effective institutions to address information problems than poor countries. These institutions make it possible for people to engage in economic transactions that improve their lives—from buying milk, to finding a job, to getting an education, to obtaining a loan. Information problems are often at the core of the difficulties that poor people in developing countries encounter in their daily struggle to survive and to improve their lives.

Information is the lifeblood of every economy. Information about quality, like other forms of information, is costly to create but cheap to share. As communities grow and establish links with other communities, institutions of various kinds come into existence to share information about quality. In the United States the development of ways to monitor and assess quality of markets in perishable fruits and vegetables took several decades to complete. The innovation of refrigerated rail transport in the late 1800s transformed the American fresh fruit trade from a patchwork of small, isolated markets into a national market with fruit grown in regions far from major consumption centers. But shipping over long distances meant inserting middlemen between the farmers and the consumer, and this created opportunities for fraud. The farmer could deliver low-quality fruit and escape blame by claiming that the fruit was damaged during shipping. If the railroad allowed the fruit to rot, it could plausibly blame the farmer. And the distributor in the receiving market could claim that the quality of the goods received was lower than it actually was. Without a means to verify quality at both the shipping point and the receiving point, written contracts based on delivered quality could not solve the information problem. Growers therefore asked the U.S. government for assistance, and it responded by establishing a shipping point inspection service. Today, the U.S. Agricultural Marketing Service provides inspections at the shipping point and the destination point on a voluntary, fee-for-service basis. So, in this way various steps were taking, addressing the information problem which helped them to deliver quality product and also maintain their brand.

In developed countries, government sometimes act more directly to mitigate the quality verification problem through disclosure requirements—for example, requiring manufacturers of food products to disclose their ingredients (again, laws need to ensure that the disclosures are honest). Or governments themselves may provide the certification.  And often the government plays an important role in enforcement: those who break a contract can be taken to court. If there is enough information to prove this breach of promise legally, the contract breaker will be punished. However, in developing countries, resorting to legal remedies is costly. Sharecropping provides a classic example of the information problems in a developing country, the way people cope with them, and the new problems to which the solution gives rise. Land ownership is often highly unequal in developing countries, with many poor farmers holding little or no land, and a few rich landowners holding more land than they can farm. To make full use of both the land and the labor available, either landlords have to hire workers, or workers have to rent land, or some other arrangement for matching land and workers has to be found. The arrangement that has evolved over much of the world is sharecropping, where land-poor farmers cultivate land belonging to a landlord, to whom they turn over a share of the harvest, keeping the rest for themselves. Typically the landlord’s share is large, between one-third and two-thirds. Why has this arrangement come to predominate in so much of the world? The answer has to do with information, risk, and, most important, contract enforcement.

Whether in the labor market, the credit market, the land market, or commodity markets, the poor often suffer most from the consequences of information failure, and especially from the resulting market failure. It is the poor who are most likely to have difficulty gaining access to credit because they lack collateral, or who have to pay what seem like usurious interest rates when they do get loans. It is the poor who must resort to sharecropping contracts, which lower their productivity. It is the poor who are often limited to job opportunities in their immediate vicinity, where market segmentation holds their wages down. And it is the poor who are impoverished in many other ways, not least in their lack of access to information, which contributes to their sense of isolation. Thus, addressing the existing information problems is a crucial step to development. 

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I'm not here right now. #tb #traveldiaries #markhu #Indrasarowar #Nepal #travelnepal #Rain (at Indrasarowar, Kulekhani)

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Bhardev, Godawari Nagarpalika. (at Bhardev)

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Trespassing through trees. #tb #unplanned #shorttrip #trees #hills #somewhereinthisplanet #Nepal #Kathmandu

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Happy New Year 2074 to all the Nepalis all over the world. #NewYear #2074 #Nepal #Overlay #Kathmandu #Asan #dusk (at Ason Bazaar)

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Narrowing Knowledge Gap

According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, knowledge can be defined as the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association. In other words, it is also the range of one's information or understaning of a science, art or technique. It is facts, information and skills acquired through experience or education which can be both theoritical or practical understanding of a subject. It is critical for development and plays an important role in transforming life, survival, lifestyle change, adjustment with environment, etc.

Poor countries, poor people differ from their rich counterparts not only because they have less capital, but because they have less knowledge. Knowledge is often costly to create and that is why much of it is created and endoresed in developed nations of the world. Thus it is the knowledge gap that distincts one developed nation from the other and their will to acquire knowledge determines how much the gap remains after a certain period of time. Approaching development from a knowledge perspectives like adopting policies to increase knowledge can improve people's lives in myriad ways besides higher incomes. Better knowledge about nutrition can mean better health, even for those with little to spend on food. Knowledge about AIDS can save millions of lives as this knowledge will play a crucial role in preventing the transmission of the disease. Thus knowledge gives people greater control over their destinies. To unleash the power of knowledge, goverments must recognizze and respond to any types of problems regarding knowledge gap.

Closing or decreasing the knowledge gap is not an easy task as it involves moving target while the developed and industrial nations push towards knowledge frontiers outward. The gap in capacity to create knowledge can be attributed as greater than the knowledge gap itself. The considerable gap in important measures or methods of knowledge creation can be seen between the rich and poor countries and it is far greater than the income gap between the two. One thing developing countries or poor countries do not need to do is they do not need to reinvent the wheel. These countries have the option of acquiring and adapting as much knowledge as possible which are already availaible in the richer and more developed countries. This is well supported by the fact that the cost of means of communications has fallen sharply meaning that the transfer of knowledge has never been cheaper in their history. Their are different conditions required for developing countires to make fuller use of the global stock of knowledge. The three critical steps taht developing countries must take to narrow knowledge gaps are:

1)      Acquiring knowledge, which involves tapping and adapting the knowledge and information that is avaialble elsewhere in the world.

2)      Absorbing knowledge, which onvilves esuring universal basic education with special emphasis on extending education to traditional disadvantaged groups; creating opportunities for lifelong learning and supporting education, especially in science and engineering.

3)      Communicating knowledge involves taking advantange of new information and communication technologies through increased competition.

Just as knowledge gaps exist between developing and industrial countries, so too are there large gaps within countries. Strategies for closing these gaps often include the same elements, and applying them effectively will go a long way toward reducing inequality and eliminating poverty. Yet, even if knowledge gap could be closed everyone in dveloping countries enjoying access tothe same know how as well educated people in the developed countries would still be a disadvantage in another aspect i.e. knowledge about attributes. Because knowledge about attributes is required for every transaction, it must be generated on the spot and constantly refreshed. This requires a variety of market and nonmarket mechanisms to collect and disseminate information, many of which are weak or lacking in developing countries.

Without the proper knowledge about attributes, markets cannot function properly. The government should step in and address the problems by establishing standards and certifications. Institutions, broadly defined to include governments, private organizations, laws, and social norms, contribute to establishing recognized standards and enforcing contracts, thus making possible transactions that would otherwise not occur. Rich countries have more-diverse and moreeffective institutions to address information problems than do poor countries. These institutions make it possible for people to engage in economic transactions that improve their lives—from buying milk, to finding a job, to getting an education, to obtaining a loan. Information problems are often at the core of the difficulties that poor people in developing countries encounter in their daily struggle to survive and to improve their lives. The unequal distribution of information can never be entirely eliminated, but it can be ameliorated, in part through institutional innovations designed specifically for developing-country settings and the special problems confronting poor people. There are some promising solutions in three areas where these problems are most severe, and where addressing them can make a major contribution to achieving sustainable growth that benefits the poor:

·         Processing the economy's financial information

·         Increating the knowledge of the environment

·         Addressing information problems that hurt the poor

Most of the difficulties faced by the developing nations involve both knowledge gaps and information problems. The solutions, thus must address both issues, raising possibilities for improving human well being which is so important that we always return to these two things throughout the development procedure as a whole.

There are various sources to absorb knowledge. One doesn’t need to follow the academic institutions to gain the knowledge. It is believed that the rate of child mortality fell down because mothers started gaining health education. Farmers could possibly gain basic education from the trainers and NGOs. It is more productive and more likely to profit from new technology. The schooling helps in promoting the use of new technologies in the home for health, nutrition, learning and contraception. Finally, it is very important to close the knowledge gaps. We can afford on closing the knowledge gap by three basic points:

·         Acquiring and adapting global knowledge and creating knowledge locally.

·         Investing in human capital to increase the ability to absorb and use knowledge.

·         Investing in technologies to facilitate both the acquisition and the absorption of knowledge.

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Came across this pic I made 6 years ago in Photoshop! 😂😂😎📸 #photoshop #isuckatphotoshop #manipulation #eiffeltower #paris #me #2011 #tb #photomanip #potd

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Chase the sunset. #chobhar #gorge #Bagmati #kathmandu #dust #sunset #Ktm #igktm #Nepal #dusk #instanepal #ignepal #potd #overlay #picoftheday