Pattern Matching and Backwards Compatibility
Pattern matching in Rust is, the first time it clicks, something magical.
When you define a domain subject with an enum, and then match on the various details, you can express logic in a very natural way, and reduce errors about forgetting to handle all the cases. It's exceptional when the enum definition and the match statements are in the same crates.
It's a bit trickier when a library wants to export variants to allow easy matching for users of that library. There are API compatibility concerns, and while some have elegant solutions, others... don't.
This write-up shows several instances of this that I've learned from a library author's point of view.
Translating typical Error inheritance
Enums with an "open-ended" variant
The various versions of HTTP are well-defined, and are not variant in the same way a library version might be. You don't have a whole bunch of unknown HTTP version identifiers that you need to parse. So representing it as an enum is a pretty natural fit. You might start with something like this:
enum Version { Http10, Http11, Http2, }
A user might decide they need to do something different depending on the version of a request received:
match req.version() { Version::Http10 => println!("1.0"), Version::Http11 => println!("1.1"), Version::Http2 => println!("2"), }
That feels quite nice! But then as a library, you realize you need to add a new variant to support HTTP/3. By doing that, you'll break compilation for the user, since they are trying to exhaustively match on a pattern which is no longer exhaustive. Rust now has an attribute, #[non_exhaustive], which you can place on a definition to protect your users from these changes.1
#[non_exhaustive] enum Version { Http10, Http11, Http2, }
The user is now required to include a catch-all pattern, signaling that more variants may appear in the future.
match req.version() { Version::Http10 => println!("1.0"), Version::Http11 => println!("1.1"), Version::Http2 => println!("2"), other => println!("other? {:?}", other), }
With that in place, adding Version::Http3 won't break your user. Compatibility!
Exhaustively non-exhaustive
#[non_exhaustive] enum Version { Http10, Http11, Http2, }
The non_exhaustive attribute means a user must include a catch-all arm, which means we can add new variants and not break their code.
However, what if the user really wants to know if they handled all possible variants, perhaps after an upgrade? The catch-all prevents them from knowing.
There is a currently unstable lint, that is allow by default, but when developing a user can opt-in to being warned about new variants.
match req.version() { Version::Http10 => println!("1.0"), Version::Http11 => println!("1.1"), #[warn(non_exhaustive_omitted_patterns)] _ => unknown(), }
With the current enum, this will warn the user they didn't match on Version::Http2. And when the library adds a Version::Http3 variant, the user will notice a new warning when they upgrade.
It's very common in Rust for errors to be represented by an enum. The perceived benefit is that a consumer can cleanly match on different error cases, and if desired, even ensure you had handled every possible error case. While I'm not here to argue the premise of whether you should handle every single case, a problem I've struggled with related to this approach is probably better to explain first with a different programming language.
Let's say we have some client in Python, and we want to specifically retry "connect" errors. We might write that like so:
try: resp = client.get(url) except error.Connect: retry() # otherwise, keep raising
Later on, the client library decides it wants to allow being more specific about the exact error kind that occured while connecting. The library could do that by declaring some new error types that inherit from the Connect error.
class Resolve(error.Connect): pass class Handshake(error.Connect): pass
The user's original code will continue to work the same. Backwards compatibility has been kept. But a user can also update their code to be more specific, if they so desire:
try: resp = client.get(url) except error.Resolve: raise # don't retry a bad hostname except error.Connect: retry() # otherwise, keep raising
Back in Rust, this is harder to do. The simplest solution is just not to expose an enum, but an opaque struct with methods, like is_connect(), which will continue to be true if you later add is_resolve(). But, we're talking about pattern matching. Could we make this sort of flexibility work?
We could. Probably the better question is should we? But let's peek first, anyways.
Nested Non-exhaustiveness
Let's see what the user could try to write first, to see the goal:
match client.get(url) { Error::Connect(_) => { // retry }, e => return Err(e), }
The key here is that the Connect variant must contain a field. That way, if the library adds sub-variants, it doesn't break the code at compile-time or at runtime. It's also important that when there aren't any sub-variants, the pattern should still be non-exhaustive.
The library could provide its variants like this:
#[non_exhaustive] pub enum Error { Connect(Connect), // other top-level errors } #[non_exhaustive] pub enum Connect { Resolve(unnameable::Resolve), Handshake(unnameable::Handshake), } mod unnameable { pub struct Resolve(()); pub struct Handshake(()); }
The Connect sub-variants contain publicly unnameable typed fields, to prevent the user from being too exhaustive. This prevents a pattern such as Error::Connect(Connect::Resolve(Resolve(_))), which would break when Resolve became an enum. We can't reach for an empty enum Resolve {}, since then the type would be uninhabitable, and we could never construct such an error value.
An upgrading user doesn't break, but they can also be more specific if they choose:
match err { e @ Error::Connect(Connect::Resolve(_)) => { return Err(e); // don't retry } Error::Connect(_) => { // retry } }
If later on, we want to add some Resolve variants, we can promote it to an enum without breakage:
#[non_exhaustive] pub enum Resolve { NoRecordsFound(unnameable::NoRecordsFound), Io(unnameable::Io), }
The question of should we still lingers, though. I can't say what the right answer is. I leave this here hoping someone will explore the idea more thoroughly, and tell us how great or horrid it is.2
Some other domains appear to lend themselves to being represented by an enum, but likely shouldn't be. These are things where there are a set of commonly known types, but with an additional variant that is purposefully open-ended. Sometimes it's setup that way to allow for some official registry of constants, so a specification doesn't need to know all of them at publication time. Others just define the rules of a type, define the most common, and then also include an "extension" variant.
Defining these publicly as a Rust enum is an API compatibility hazard. Consider the example of HTTP status codes. Say we defined them like this:
#[non_exhaustive] pub enum Status { Ok, NotFound, InternalServerError, Unregistered(u16), }
We have an Unregistered(u16) variant because the specification allows for new status codes to defined over time, and even unregistered custom codes are valid. But what if a user starts matching on a status to use a newly proposed code:
match code { Status::Unregistered(103) => println!("early hints!"), _ => (), }
If the library later on decides to add a variant for the new status code, even though the enum was marked as non_exhaustive, it will be a form of breaking change. It won't be a compile-time break. Instead, it will only happen at runtime. The code, as a Status::EarlyHints, will no longer match the Status::Unregistered(103) pattern.
Opaque types with constants
We solved this in http by making StatusCode an opaque struct, and defined all the "variants" as constants.
pub struct StatusCode(u16); impl StatusCode { pub const OK: StatusCode = StatusCode(200); pub const NOT_FOUND: StatusCode = StatusCode(404); // etc ... }
Users can still match on the common "variants", but specifically can't match an exposed variant name for unregistered codes. They can only match them with a catch-all pattern:
match code { StatusCode::OK => println!("ok!"), other => { if other == 103 { println!("early hints!"); } } }
Even when a new status code constant is added, that existing code will continue to work. It does make it harder to exhaustively match on all possible status codes, but there are enough of them that the likelihood of anyone wanting to do that is very low.
Turns out, this works well when matching for equality!3 http::Method uses this too. This lesson also inspired a lot of changes in the headers crate.
We made the http::Version type before #[non_exhaustive] existed, using a similar technique to StatusCode. We could switch it, but seeing them as constants feels right. ↩︎
Probably somewhere in the middle, as is the usual when comparing trade-offs. ↩︎
There's another case regarding open-ended variants, but I think it's big enough to be a separate post. ↩︎
