#lingusitics

[retroreverbs]

Linguistics by David Crystal (Pelican, 1976 edition).

[moth-to-a-moon]

Why am I learning four languages at once what is my problem

[anza-langblr]

敬語の5分類｜The 5 Types of keigo

In the Japanese language it is possible to show respect towards another person by replacing words, mostly verbs, with politer equivalents. This can be done by using elevating expressions for the actions of your superior or degrading expressions for your own actions.

Overview: Verb Formation Rules for sonkeigo 尊敬語, kenjōgo I 謙譲語Ⅰ and kenjōgo II 謙譲語Ⅱ (also known as teichōgo 丁重語).

In a guideline released by the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs in the year 2007 keigo has been divided into five types: 尊敬語・謙譲語Ⅰ・謙譲語Ⅱ（丁重語）・丁寧語・美化語. The first three types demonstrate the most complex rules, hence why I summarized them in the chart above for a quick overview. Hereafter, you can find thorough introductions to each type.

尊敬語｜Respectful Language

Sonkeigo is the most basic method to pay special respect towards a teacher, a superior or a client. This can be done by switching the verb (refering to the action of your superior) with its passive form.

e.g.　読みます　→　読まれます

However, the degree of politeness isn't that high. Hence, it is important to learn the following formation rules as well:

１）特定形 ｜Special forms

Some verbs have a fixed forms. If a verb has a special form it is to be used.¹

e.g.　いる・行く・来る　→　いらっしゃいます

２）サ変動詞＋なさいます

In this context サ変動詞 refers to nominal verbs. Basically, nouns that can be turned into verbs by adding する. It is possible to add お or ご infront of the verb but it can be also omitted if unsure which prefix is the right one.

e.g.　出発する　 →　（ご）出発なさいます

３）お＋Ⅴます＋になります

This formation rule is for all verbs that do not belong into either of the two categories above. Omitting ます leaves the so-called renyōkei 連用形 or conjunctive form of the verb. Here, the prefix added is always お.

e.g.　待ちます　→　お待ちになります

It is not uncommon to apply this formation rule to サ変動詞 as well. Depending on the nominal verb お needs to be changed to ご.

e.g.　参加する　→　ご参加になります

However, there are exceptions. Some nominal verbs are not idiomatic and end up sounding unnatural to native ears.

e.g.　運転する　→　ご運転になります　✕ 運転する　→　運転なさいます 〇

謙譲語 Ⅰ｜Humble Language I

Kenjōgo I + II have the opposite effect of sonkeigo. They degrade one's status and are therefore applied only to your own actions or the actions of someone from your inner circle (e.g. a co-worker, or a family member).

In contrast to kenjōgo II, kenjōgo I is used when your action (or the action of someone from your circle) is directed at the person you want to pay respect to. It is also used when you do something for said person.

The formation rules are as listed below:

１）特定形 ｜Special forms

Some verbs have a fixed forms. If a verb has a special form it is to be used.¹

e.g.　言う　→　申し上げます

The translation would be "saying sth. to sb." or "telling sb. sth." implying that your action is directed at the person you want to pay respect to.

２）お・ご＋サ変動詞＋します

Again, there are some verbs that sound unnatural when this formation is applied.

e.g.　ご運転します　✕

In this case, you can formulate the sentence with ～させていただきます or switch to kenjōgo II.

e.g.　運転させていただきます　〇 運転いたします 　 〇

Note that, depending on the situation ～させていただきます might give of the impression that you are putting yourself down too much. This can result in making your counterpart feel uncomfortable.

３）お＋Ⅴます＋します

This formation rule is for all verbs that do not belong into either of the two categories above. Omitting ます leaves the so-called renyōkei 連用形 or conjunctive form of the verb. Here, the prefix added is always お.

e.g.　伝える　→　お伝えします

謙譲語 Ⅱ｜Humble Language II

Kenjōgo II is used when your own action is unconnected to the person you want to pay respect to. Therefore, this type of language can often be found in anouncements, news reports or broadcasts elevating its audience. At train stations one often repeated phrase is:

e.g.　もうすぐ電車が来る　→　まもなく電車が参ります

In the example above you can see that not only the verb has been switched with a politer equivalent, but the adverb as well. There are many words that can be switched with politer versions. Unlike verbs, they do not need to be inflected and can be studied like regular vocabulary.

It can also be pointed out that the action does not have to be conducted by the speaker, but can be an object (like in the example above) or a third party as well.

The formation rules are:

１）特定形

Some verbs have a fixed forms. If a verb has a special form it is to be used.¹

e.g.　言う　→　申します　(as in 私は◯◯と申します)

When introducing yourself you simly "say" or "state" your name. This is not considered an action that is directed at the person you want to pay respect to, hence it falls into the category of kenjōgo II.

２）サ変動詞＋いたします

e.g.　応募する　→　応募いたします

３）丁寧語

For all verbs that do not fall under the categories above, teineigo is used, or in other words the です・ます form.

e.g.　話す　→　話します

In case the ～ている form is used, the degree of politeness can be elevated by replacing it with ～ております which is the special form of いる.

丁寧語｜Polite Language

Teineigo is the neutral polite language. You're probably already familiar with this one, since this is the most foolproof way of speaking politely due to its absence of any kind of seesaw principle. It is used everywhere outside of your circle of friends and the safest way to talk to strangers. However, in certain situations it is expected to raise the level of politeness.

e.g.　聞く　→　聞きます

美化語｜Refined Language

There is a certain number of words, especially nouns, that can be turned into more elegant sounding versions. It can be easily understood by just looking at some examples.

e.g.　金 　→　お金 酒 　→　お酒 料理　→　ご料理 米　 →　お米 散歩 →　お散歩

Adding the respective prefix お or ご takes away the roughness of a word. This, however, can only be done with a few selected words. Refined words are commonly used in both formal and informal speech.

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¹ I compiled all special forms 特定形 that you need to know in this post: 敬語の特定形｜Keigo: Special Verb Forms.

[sedicii]

is charles’s distinct speaking style/accent evident in that new road safety video?

it's definitely distinct when he says the word "on est en contrôle de notre destin" (=we are in control of our destiny). the way he says it is in a very typical southern accent, just like for the word "pole position". He overly pronounces the "e" and completely ignores the circumflex accent which indicates that the letter is supposed to be pronounced \o\ but is actually pronounced \ɔ\ (with the letter a bit drawled out) by people from the south of France when it's followed by a silent 'e' .

[poorlythoughtoutdescisions]

okay so since I'm on here all the time, I primarily associate the word dyke/dijk (two spellings, two meanings, one pronunciation) with lesbians, which is incredibly fun when looking through my parent's old photos and finding their trip to the netherlands

"here's us at a dijk"

"there's so many dijks in the netherlands"

"we biked all the way to kinderdijk" (kinder = child/children)

"dijk, dijk, dijk, this one's amsterdam, more dijks..."

[twisted-wonderland-but-gayer]

I like the idea of introducing the twst cast to things from our world that don’t exist in theirs? For example I for some reason like the silly idea that they don’t have fire alarms? And like when they hear it and you tell them what it is they’re like “wait really?” Or you refer to a place that doesn’t exist in their world like a restaurant or something like that “Ive been to Disneyland so many times” “wtf is Disneyland?” “I’m craving Taco Bell” “huH?”

My favorite tho! I for some weird reason headcanon that people in twisted wonderland don’t know you can go to the moon?💀

And when you bring it up and start mentioning how the first man walked on the moon and they’ve got a robot on Mars they’re like “WAIT SERIOUSLY???” The moon thing is entertaining to me😭

Okay but here's something to consider:

Racism/Classism in language

So much of our language has shitty origins

Like "Hold down the fort" was invented by colonizers fighting off natives

Almost every languages word for 'Cannibal' is derived from an indigenous group. In this case, Kalinago were the tribe that cannibal derived from and they used it to described how "savage" they were. It was also believed to be mixed with the word canine to double that meaning

Like what would their word for cannibal come from?

Phrases like "see you soon" and "Gung ho" here original used to mock Chinese immigrants but lost their og meaning

Gymnasium literally means "to exercise naked" cause the original gyms were fully nude

Assassin is derived from the word Cannabis.

"Okay" came from the Choctaws "okeh" which means "it is so"

That's not even taking into all the sexual terms in the meme culture rn that's slowly having a different meaning (rawdogging, glazing, dick riding, edging, ect)

I mean scumbag, sucks, punk, musk, and porcelain were all sexual in origin too and we no longer associate them to that.

What I'm saying is their words are gonna be so much more interesting with all the additional species there are to be racist to. Esp between fae and humans. The racism has potential ok?

Also how do yall think everyone evolved in this world?? Do the humans there have their origins traced back to tiktaaliks? And if not can you imagine Yuu going to the hospital and the doctors freaking out over your DNA and prob cant give you a blood transfusion?

[hannigramislife]

Albanians don't say good morning, they say "how did you wake up today?" and in my dialect it's totally socially acceptable to reply "Alive," and it's not in a juvenile sarcastic funsies way, no, we genuinely reply with a tired albeit grateful acknowledgement that we woke up another day "Alive" and I feel that says everything about us as a people.

[firebreathonary]

platzversary (n) [plætsˈvɜrsəri]

anniversary of the first time Platz faved your tweet

Then today it’s my Platzversary. Happy Platzversary to me. [ x ]

Word, added: 01/04/2016 by Claudia [ Tw | IG ]

Happy 10th anniversary to our Entry of the Day!

Full Firebreathonary