Groundbreaking research finds that the human brain creates multi-dimensional neural structures.
The human brain builds structures in 11 dimensions, discover scientists
Groundbreaking research finds that the human brain creates multi-dimensional neural structures.
“The brain continues to surprise us with its magnificent complexity. Groundbreaking research that combines neuroscience with math tells us that our brain creates neural structures with up to 11 dimensions when it processes information. By “dimensions,” they mean abstract mathematical spaces, not other physical realms. Still, the researchers “found a world that we had never imagined,” said Henry Markram, director of the Blue Brain Project, which made the discovery...”
The lack of a formal link between neural network structure and its emergent function has hampered our understanding of how the brain processes information. We have now come closer to describing such a link by taking the direction of synaptic transmission into account, constructing graphs of a network that reflect the direction of information flow, and analyzing these directed graphs using algebraic topology. Applying this approach to a local network of neurons in the neocortex revealed a remarkably intricate and previously unseen topology of synaptic connectivity. The synaptic network contains an abundance of cliques of neurons bound into cavities that guide the emergence of correlated activity. In response to stimuli, correlated activity binds synaptically connected neurons into functional cliques and cavities that evolve in a stereotypical sequence toward peak complexity. We propose that the brain processes stimuli by forming increasingly complex functional cliques and cavities.
Cliques of Neurons Bound into Cavities Provide a Missing Link between Structure and Function
“The lack of a formal link between neural network structure and its emergent function has hampered our understanding of how the brain processes information. We have now come closer to describing such a link by taking the direction of synaptic transmission into account, constructing graphs of a network that reflect the direction of information flow, and analyzing these directed graphs using algebraic topology. Applying this approach to a local network of neurons in the neocortex revealed a remarkably intricate and previously unseen topology of synaptic connectivity. The synaptic network contains an abundance of cliques of neurons bound into cavities that guide the emergence of correlated activity. In response to stimuli, correlated activity binds synaptically connected neurons into functional cliques and cavities that evolve in a stereotypical sequence toward peak complexity. We propose that the brain processes stimuli by forming increasingly complex functional cliques and cavities.
1. Introduction
How the structure of a network determines its function is not well understood. For neural networks specifically, we lack a unifying mathematical framework to unambiguously describe the emergent behavior of the network in terms of its underlying structure (Bassett and Sporns, 2017). While graph theory has been used to analyze network topology with some success (Bullmore and Sporns, 2009), current methods are usually constrained to analyzing how local connectivity influences local activity (Pajevic and Plenz, 2012; Chambers and MacLean, 2016) or global network dynamics (Hu et al., 2014), or how global network properties like connectivity and balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurons influence network dynamics (Renart et al., 2010; Rosenbaum et al., 2017). One such global network property is small-worldness. While it has been shown that small-worldness optimizes information exchange (Latora and Marchiori, 2001), and that adaptive rewiring during chaotic activity leads to small world networks (Gong and Leeuwen, 2004), the degree of small-worldness cannot describe most local network properties, such as the different roles of individual neurons.
Algebraic topology (Munkres, 1984) offers the unique advantage of providing methods to describe quantitatively both local network properties and the global network properties that emerge from local structure, thus unifying both levels. More recently, algebraic topology has been applied to functional networks between brain regions using fMRI (Petri et al., 2014) and between neurons using neural activity (Giusti et al., 2015), but the underlying synaptic connections (structural network) were unknown. Furthermore, all formal topological analyses have overlooked the direction of information flow, since they analyzed only undirected graphs.
We developed a mathematical framework to analyze both the structural and the functional topology of the network, integrating local and global descriptions, enabling us to establish a clear relationship between them. We represent a network as a directed graph, with neurons as the vertices and the synaptic connections directed from pre- to postsynaptic neurons as the edges, which can be analyzed using elementary tools from algebraic topology (Munkres, 1984). The structural graph contains all synaptic connections, while a functional graph is a sub-graph of the structural graph containing only those connections that are active within a specific time bin (i.e., in which a postsynaptic neuron fires within a short time of a presynaptic spike). The response to a stimulus can then be represented and studied as a time series of functional graphs.
Networks are often analyzed in terms of groups of nodes that are all-to-all connected, known as cliques. The number of neurons in a clique determines its size, or more formally, its dimension. In directed graphs it is natural to consider directed cliques, which are cliques containing a single source neuron and a single sink neuron and reflecting a specific motif of connectivity (Song et al., 2005; Perin et al., 2011), wherein the flow of information through a group of neurons has an unambiguous direction. The manner in which directed cliques bind together can be represented geometrically. When directed cliques bind appropriately by sharing neurons, and without forming a larger clique due to missing connections, they form cavities (“holes,” “voids”) in this geometric representation, with high-dimensional cavities forming when high-dimensional (large) cliques bind together. Directed cliques describe the flow of information in the network at the local level, while cavities provide a global measure of information flow in the whole network. Using these naturally arising structures, we established a direct relationship between the structural graph and the emergent flow of information in response to stimuli, as captured through time series of functional graphs.
We applied this framework to digital reconstructions of rat neocortical microcircuitry that closely resemble the biological tissue in terms of the numbers, types, and densities of neurons and their synaptic connectivity (a “microconnectome” model for a cortical microcircuit, Figures 1A,B; see Markram et al., 2015; Reimann et al., 2015). Simulations of the reconstructed microcircuitry reproduce multiple emergent electrical behaviors found experimentally in the neocortex (Markram et al., 2015). The microcircuit, formed by ~8 million connections (edges) between ~31,000 neurons (vertices), was reconstructed from experimental data, guided by biological principles of organization, and iteratively refined until validated against a battery of independent anatomical and physiological data obtained from experiments. Multiple instantiations of the reconstruction provide a statistical and biological range of microcircuits for analysis.
FIGURE 1
Figure 1. (A) Thin (10 μm) slice of in silico reconstructed tissue. Red: A clique formed by five pyramidal cells in layer 5. (B1) Full connection matrix of a reconstructed microcircuit with 31,146 neurons. Neurons are sorted by cortical layer and morphological type within each layer. Pre-/postsynaptic neurons along the vertical/horizontal axis. Each grayscale pixel indicates the connections between two groups of 62 neurons each, ranging from white (no connections) to black (≥8% connected pairs). (B2) Zoom into the connectivity between two groups of 434 neurons each in layer 5, i.e., 7 by 7 pixels in (A), followed by a further zoom into the clique of 5 neurons shown in (A). Black indicates presence, and white absence of a connection. (B3)Zoom into the somata of the clique in (A) and representation of their connectivity as a directed graph.
We found a remarkably high number and variety of high-dimensional directed cliques and cavities, which had not been seen before in neural networks, either biological or artificial, and in far greater numbers than those found in various null models of directed networks. Topological metrics reflecting the number of directed cliques and cavities not only distinguished the reconstructions from all null models, they also revealed subtle differences between reconstructions based on biological datasets from different animals, suggesting that individual variations in biological detail of neocortical microcircuits are reflected in the repertoire of directed cliques and cavities. When we simulated microcircuit activity in response to sensory stimuli, we observed that pairwise correlations in neuronal activity increased with the number and dimension of the directed cliques to which a pair of neurons belongs, indicating that the hierarchical structure of the network shapes a hierarchy of correlated activity. In fact, we found a hierarchy of correlated activity between neurons even within a single directed clique. During activity, many more high-dimensional directed cliques formed than would be expected from the number of active connections, further suggesting that correlated activity tends to bind neurons into high-dimensional active cliques.
Following a spatio-temporal stimulus to the network, we found that during correlated activity, active cliques form increasingly high-dimensional cavities (i.e., cavities formed by increasingly larger cliques). Moreover, we discovered that while different spatio-temporal stimuli applied to the same circuit and the same stimulus applied to different circuits produced different activity patterns, they all exhibited the same general evolution, where functional relationships among increasingly higher-dimensional cliques form and then disintegrate...”
A genome-wide association study shows that myocardial trabeculae are an important determinant of cardiac performance in the adult heart, identifies conserved pathways that regulate structural complexity and reveals the influence of trabeculae on the susceptibility to cardiovascular disease.
There is a certain archetype that is as old as literature and history themselves. One of the first times we see it in the West is with Cassandra in the Greek tragedies. She has the power to see into the future (she prophesied the fall of Troy and the murder of Agamemnon) but no one listens to her. Then we have Demosthenes, whose warnings against the rise of Phillip (Alexander the Great’s father) are so incessant that everyone hates him for it. Later on in Rome, Cato the Elder—Cato’s grandfather—was such a frequent (and ultimately prescient) critic and hawk when it came to Carthage, that he would play the same role. In fact, he would end every speech he gave, no matter the topic, no matter the occasion, with Carthago delenda est (“Carthage must be destroyed”). His grandson, Cato—the towering Stoic—would develop a similar reputation as a kind of obstinate truth-teller, even when it was inconvenient, even when it disturbed the peace, even when it made enemies, even when he was exhausted or knew he would be ignored.
Daily Stoic, Tell The Truth, Even If They Hate You For It
