The Papal Bulls of the Doctrine of Discovery: Religion, Power, and the Justification of Empire
The 15th century marked a turning point in global history, as European powers began expanding beyond their borders in search of land, wealth, and influence. Central to this expansion was a set of religious documents issued by the Catholic Church—most notably Dum Diversas, Romanus Pontifex, and Inter Caetera. Together, these papal bulls formed the ideological backbone of what later became known as the Doctrine of Discovery. While framed in religious language, these documents functioned as political tools that helped justify conquest, exploitation, and the subjugation of non-European peoples.
The first of these, Dum Diversas, issued by Pope Nicholas V in 1452, explicitly authorized the Portuguese crown to wage war against non-Christian populations. Its language permitted the conquest and enslavement of these groups, granting religious legitimacy to actions that were fundamentally economic and political in nature. Although slavery existed long before this decree, Dum Diversas marked a significant moment in which the Church formally endorsed its expansion under the banner of Christian authority. The document reveals how religious justification could be used to normalize and even encourage domination over others.
This foundation was strengthened by Romanus Pontifex in 1455, which expanded Portugal’s rights over territories along the West African coast. It granted exclusive control over trade and reinforced earlier permissions to conquer and rule non-Christian lands. In doing so, it introduced a system in which European powers could claim vast regions of the world with little regard for the people already living there. The bull effectively turned exploration into sanctioned appropriation, blending religious mission with imperial ambition. It also set a precedent for dividing the non-European world among European states, as though it were theirs to distribute.
The third major document, Inter Caetera, issued by Pope Alexander VI in 1493, extended this logic to the Americas following Christopher Columbus’s voyage. By drawing a line across the Atlantic and assigning lands on either side to Spain and Portugal, the papacy asserted authority over territories it had never seen and peoples it did not understand. This act demonstrated the extent to which religious power was intertwined with geopolitical strategy. Indigenous populations were not consulted or recognized as sovereign entities; instead, they were treated as subjects of conversion and control.
Taken together, these three papal bulls reveal a pattern: religion was used not merely as a system of belief, but as a framework for legitimizing expansion and hierarchy. The idea that Christian nations had a divine right to dominate non-Christian peoples created a moral structure that justified colonization and its consequences. These documents did not act alone in shaping history, but they provided a powerful endorsement that influenced law, policy, and attitudes for centuries.
Critically, the legacy of these bulls extends far beyond their original context. Their principles were later embedded in legal systems, including colonial law and court decisions that shaped land ownership and Indigenous rights. Even today, debates continue about their lasting impact and the extent to which their assumptions remain embedded in modern institutions.
In conclusion, Dum Diversas, Romanus Pontifex, and Inter Caetera were not just religious decrees; they were instruments of power. They illustrate how authority—when combined with ideology—can be used to justify far-reaching and often harmful actions. Understanding these documents is essential not only for interpreting the past, but also for recognizing how historical narratives continue to influence the present.