#tariqa

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Circle

the Traditionalist School of esotericism on the Initiatory Path as the circle of divine Law (Éric Geoffroy) 🤫 🧐 ⚖️ 🗝️ 🌱 🙏🏼 🧘‍♀️ 🧕 🧎‍♀️ 🚶 🏃🏾‍➡️ 🙇 ☪️ 🕉️ ⚛️ 🕯️ 📜 🙌 💝 ❄️ ⚖️ 🕍 🛤️ 🛣️ 🌌 🌉 🛞

A Project in Bhaskarian Critical Realism

[senegalsbrotherhoods]

When Did Islam Arrive in Senegal?

Sufism first appeared in West Africa in the 18th century, although there is evidence of earlier Sufi activities in the Western and Central Sahara, especially in Timbuktu, Mali as early as the 15th century. These early movements helped spread Islam in many parts of West Africa, but it was only after European colonial rule began that large numbers of West Africans started to adopt Islamic beliefs and practices (Seesemann, 2010). Senegal, since the 11th century, has had contact with Islam but its widespread acceptance occurred only in the 19th century (Bop, 2005).  In Senegal, the term ‘Marabout’ may be used to refer to Islamic “imams, teachers, scholars, preachers and saints, to the leaders of religious ceremony or of Muslim” (Gemmeke, 2009). In West Africa, Marabouts have been recorded  “as early as the mid-seventeenth century” as, in the North of Senegal (Fouta Toro), Islam was adopted in large numbers “following their contacts with Mauritanians and Moroccans” (Gemmeke, 2009). Between the 1880s and 1930s, Islam spread more rapidly in Africa than ever before. Now, Senegal is a Muslim majority country, where the religion is predominantly practiced through brotherhoods which tie together Sufism and local beliefs (Edwin, 2009). These brotherhoods or Tariqa’s are both organizational frameworks as well as a path one may follow to experience enlightenment or a personal religious experience (Edwin, 2009).

Bop, C. (2005). Roles and the Position of Women in Sufi Brotherhoods in Senegal. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 73(4), 1099–1119. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfi116 

Edwin, S. (2009). Expressing Islamic feminism in Mariama Bâ’s So Long a Letter. Gender, Place and Culture : A Journal of Feminist Geography, 16(6), 723–740. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690903279161

Gemmeke, A. B. (2009). Marabout Women in Dakar: Creating Authority in Islamic Knowledge. Africa (London. 1928), 79(1), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.3366/E0001972008000648

Seesemann, R. (2010). Sufism in West Africa. Religion Compass, 4(10), 606–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00241

[senegalsbrotherhoods]

What is Sufism?

Sufism is the practice of purifying one's heart and renouncing the material world in order to get closer to God, a well-established tradition within Islam (Sodiq, 2007). According to Rudiger Seesemann, Sufism is a sect of Islam that animates its soul. Sufism is normally associated with mystical and spiritual connotations, focusing on the inward search for God and spiritual growth (2010). It emphasizes the personal experience of the divine and the development of a closer relationship with God through practices such as meditation, chanting, and contemplation. Sufism aims to purify the heart and achieve a state of spiritual enlightenment or closeness to God, often expressed through poetry, music, and devotion to a spiritual guide or teacher (Cheikh/Sheikh). Sufis believe in the importance of love, compassion, and tolerance as essential elements of their spiritual journey. Sufism is practiced most throughout North and West Africa (Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Sudan, Morocco, and Senegal) and less in the Middle East. Welch (2018) recognizes Seesemann’s duality of Sufism into two main categories: how one should behave towards God and how one should interact with people, whether Muslim or not (2010). Sufi teachers emphasize the need to internalize the components of the religion before one can align their external and internal attitudes. Sufi masters trained students who then spread these teachings to others in their villages. In Senegal, Sufism can be described as the importance placed on the “spiritual education of disciples” as those following Tariqas (or the path) aim to perfect their religion (Edwin, 2009). This may be due to the Sufi principle of “‘He who does not have a Shaykh will have Satan for a guide” (Edwin, 2009). It is said that in Senegalese society, there are many whom “...prefers to practice Islam through consultations of and affiliations to maraboutic or Islamic organizations.” (Edwin, 2009). An example of an esoteric practice in Senegal would be that of the gris-gris, amulets (Gemmeke, 2009). Other practices include dream interpretations, prayer sessions, numerology, astrology, healing, protection, divine sand-writing, identifying witches, fighting djinn, and casting spells. The above services may be called ‘maraboutage’ although there “appears to be no universally accepted local or regional term that covers all of the kinds of knowledge and practices“ (Gemmeke, 2009). Among the majority, there stands a small group of Muslims referred to as “Ibadu Muslims” in Senegal who do not associate themselves with brothers or having spiritual guides (Edwin, 2009). This group follows the Quran and the Sunna, in which they try their best to emulate the way of life of the Prophet Muhammad; the only human to have ever perfected Islam on Earth (Edwin, 2009). 

Edwin, S. (2009). Expressing Islamic feminism in Mariama Bâ’s So Long a Letter. Gender, Place and Culture : A Journal of Feminist Geography, 16(6), 723–740. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690903279161

Gemmeke, A. B. (2009). Marabout Women in Dakar: Creating Authority in Islamic Knowledge. Africa (London. 1928), 79(1), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.3366/E0001972008000648 

Logan Welch. (2018). Sufism. American Journal of Islam & Society (Online), 35(2). https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v35i2.840

Seesemann, R. (2010). Sufism in West Africa. Religion Compass, 4(10), 606–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00241 

Sodiq, Y. (2007). Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal - By Khadim Mbacke [Review of Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal - By Khadim Mbacke]. Religious Studies Review, 33(1), 79–79. Blackwell Publishing Asia. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-0922.2007.00153_2.x 

[senegalsbrotherhoods]

What are Brotherhoods/Tariqas?

Brotherhoods, or Tariqas, are Sufi orders otherwise known as organizations of spiritual or mystical Islam (Gemmeke, 2009). The organization of brotherhoods are hierarchical with the Grand Marabout/Caliph at the top, then the marabouts (descendents of the founder) who lead branches of the brotherhood, and the disciples at the bottom (Bop, 2005). Members of Tariqas are “distinguished by their devotion to the grand marabouts” as there is widespread belief that renouncing one's will to that of their marabout ensures their entrance into paradise after death (Gifford, 2016). By the end of the 19th century, Senegal became a “paradise of brotherhoods” where the relationships between their leaders became one of cooperation as it is believed that 90% of the population is a part of a brotherhood (Gemmeke, 2009). Every Tariqa is different (culturally and socially), and each Tariqa may have its own customs, rituals, and organizational structure, but they all share the goal of helping followers deepen their spiritual connection within the Islamic faith. The Daaira, derived from the word ‘circle’ in Arabic, is a fairly recent central practice in a brotherhood, in which members meet (typically) weekly to perform prayers, songs, and engage in other forms of devotion (Dilley, 2011). Daaira’s are not only a place of gathering for worship, but the sight in which members' fees are collected (Swindell, 2019). Mutual aid support is common as members support each other through sending money to their grand marabout (Dilley, 2011).

Bop, C. (2005). Roles and the Position of Women in Sufi Brotherhoods in Senegal. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 73(4), 1099–1119. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfi116 

Dilley, R. (2011). “Daaira”, Devotional Acts, and the Transformation of Space in Senegal, West Africa. Anthropos, 106(1), 185–192. https://doi.org/10.5771/0257-9774-2011-1-185 

Gemmeke, A. B. (2009). Marabout Women in Dakar: Creating Authority in Islamic Knowledge. Africa (London. 1928), 79(1), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.3366/E0001972008000648 

Gifford, P. (2016). Religion in Contemporary Senegal. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 31(2), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2016.1152684 

Swindell, K. (2019). Faith, Work, Farming and Business: The Role of the Spiritual in West African Livelihoods. Journal of Asian and African Studies (Leiden), 54(6), 819–837. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909619840754

[senegalsbrotherhoods]

What Are the Four Largest Muslim Brotherhoods in Senegal?

The four largest Brotherhoods in Senegal are the Tijianiyya, the Mourides, the Qaddriyah, and Layene; the first two being the most dominant (Edwin, 2009).  The Qaddriyah makeup approx. 5% of the population and “are named after Cheikh Abd al-Qadir of Persia who died 1166 (Gifford, 2016). The Layene, founded by Libasse Thiaw in 1883 who make up about 5% of the population, are a unique brotherhood as they believe  that Seydina Limamou, their founder, is the Mahdi and that his son was the reincarnation of Jesus (Gemmeke, 2009).

Edwin, S. (2009). Expressing Islamic feminism in Mariama Bâ’s So Long a Letter. Gender, Place and Culture : A Journal of Feminist Geography, 16(6), 723–740. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690903279161

Gemmeke, A. B. (2009). Marabout Women in Dakar: Creating Authority in Islamic Knowledge. Africa (London. 1928), 79(1), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.3366/E0001972008000648 

Gifford, P. (2016). Religion in Contemporary Senegal. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 31(2), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2016.1152684

[senegalsbrotherhoods]

Who Are the Tijianiyya?

The Tijaniyya makeup approx. 40% of the Senegalese population, stemming from Sheikh Ahmad al-Tijani of Algeria, and founded in 1902 (Gifford, 2016). The Tijaniyya is a prominent Sufi brotherhood founded in North Africa. The founder claimed to have received direct instructions from the Prophet Muhammad in visions, which formed the basis of the order's teachings and practices. It is now one of the largest and most influential Sufi orders in West Africa (Seesemann, 2010). The order spread rapidly across North and West Africa due to its adaptable nature and the efforts of dedicated missionaries, becoming particularly influential in countries like Senegal, Nigeria, Mali, and Mauritania. It has been involved in anti-colonial struggles and continues to engage in modern social and political issues (Hoover, 2014).

Gifford, P. (2016). Religion in Contemporary Senegal. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 31(2), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2016.1152684

Hoover, M. T. (2014). The Mourides of Senegal: A Gospel of Work, Solidarity & God. Ex-Patt Magazine, 2(7). https://uknowledge.uky.edu/ex-patt/vol2/iss1/7 

Seesemann, R. (2010). Sufism in West Africa. Religion Compass, 4(10), 606–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00241

[senegalsbrotherhoods]

Who Are the Mourides?

The second largest brotherhood in Senegal is the Mouride Brotherhood which was founded by Cheikh Amadou Bamba Mbacké in 1883 (Gifford, 2016). They are one of two largest Sufi brotherhoods in Senegal.The city of Touba, the capital holy city for Muslims of the Mouride brotherhood and the home of the Great Mosque of Touba, was founded in 1887 by Cheikh Amadou Bamba Mbacké (Ross, 2011). Touba is the second largest city in Senegal with the second largest population (Foley & Babou, 2011). In Senegal, brotherhoods and their practices are also important in politics and economics (Gemmeke, 2009). The Mourides are also believed to have great power and control over the economics and politics in the country (Gemmeke, 2009).

Bobst, C. (2014). “The Sufi Brotherhoods of Senegal”. [Photograph Journal]. Retrieved from https://phmuseum.com/projects/the-sufi-brotherhoods-of-senegal 

Foley, E. E., & Babou, C. A. (2011). DIASPORA, FAITH, AND SCIENCE: BUILDING A MOURIDE HOSPITAL IN SENEGAL. African Affairs (London), 110(438), 75–95. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adq063 

Gemmeke, A. B. (2009). Marabout Women in Dakar: Creating Authority in Islamic Knowledge. Africa (London. 1928), 79(1), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.3366/E0001972008000648 

Gifford, P. (2016). Religion in Contemporary Senegal. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 31(2), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2016.1152684 

 Ross, E. (2011). Globalising Touba: Expatriate Disciples in the World City Network. Urban Studies (Edinburgh, Scotland), 48(14), 2929–2952. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098010391300

[senegalsbrotherhoods]

Who is Cheikh Amadou Bamba?

Perhaps the most popular image in all of Senegal, is the portrait of Cheik Amadou Bamba (Paoletti, 2018). On our two week visit to Senegal between this May and June (2024), we witnessed his portrait across the city of Dakar especially on taxis, street walls, store walls, etc. He was a Sufi saint, poet, teacher and hero of the cultural resistance against the French colonial administration where he maintained an ‘unfazed’ approach as he continued inviting people to Allah, rather than struggling for independence. He had many names (Freedom Fighter of Senegal, Sergine Touba, wali Allah) and is widely remembered throughout Senegal and West Africa; a legacy that lives on through his family and followers (Seesemann, 2010). 

Bamba aimed to become a religious scholar and joined the Qadiriyya and Tijaniyya orders when he was young. In the 1880s, after his father's death, he became a local religious leader with a growing number of followers. Guided by a vision, he founded Touba, which would become the holy city of the Mourides. His community kept expanding, which made the French administrators nervous and see it as a threat. Despite Bamba repeatedly denying any plans for jihad, he was exiled to Gabon, where he stayed from 1895 to 1902 (Haikal, 2015). Amadou Bamba is remembered as a hero of anti-colonial resistance and a miracle worker who defied the French colonial government. He gave hope to impoverished people and former slaves, promoted the spread of Islam and the Muridiyya, and constantly wrote religious books and poetry, reportedly using seven tons of paper to produce 200 works and 222 additional Islamic poems (Haikal, 2015).  He lived from 1853 to 1927.

Bobst, C. (2014). “The Sufi Brotherhoods of Senegal”. [Photograph Journal]. Retrieved from https://phmuseum.com/projects/the-sufi-brotherhoods-of-senegal 

Haikal, K. (2015, Sep). Freedom-Fighter and Saint of Senegal: Cheikh Aḥmadou Bamba Mbacke. The Centre for Global Muslim Life. https://medium.com/ummah-wide/freedom-fighter-and-saint-of-senegal-cheikh-a%E1%B8%A5madou-bamba-mbacke-3bfdacc7986f 

Ross, E. (2011). Globalising Touba: Expatriate Disciples in the World City Network. Urban Studies (Edinburgh, Scotland), 48(14), 2929–2952. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098010391300 

Paoletti, G. (2018). Searching for the Origin(al): On the Photographic Portrait of the Mouride Sufi Saint Amadou Bamba. Cahiers d’études Africaines, 58(230 (2)), 323–348. https://doi.org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.22096

Seesemann, R. (2010). Sufism in West Africa. Religion Compass, 4(10), 606–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2010.00241