Free Throw Skills Throughout the Ages

@uwokin3347b

By: Abigail, Sam, Alex, Victoria

33 posts

Early Adulthood (2)

Early Childhood (2)

Differences in motor skills are apparent in a 2-year old versus a 6-year old, thus it is important to note that the child being filmed in the video is 3-years old and may not be able to carry out tasks as the older ones in this age range.

Though physical growth such as weight and height in early childhood is significantly slower than the years preceding (infancy), motor skills continue to develop. This age range is often associated with independence and exploratory behaviour (Boyd, Johnson, & Bee, 2017). Their movements dictate purpose with control allowing them to achieve the tasks that they set out to complete. This purposeful action is evident as shown in the video. The child is able to complete the task of shooting the ball with minimal help and attempts to properly carry out the skill by first bouncing the ball, positioning herself, and propel the ball with force in the direction towards the net; all actions have intent.

One thing you may notice is that the child is imitating the behaviour of the older child when attempting the free-throw. This may be applicable to Bandura’s theory of observational learning, where he states that children are biologically capable of learning through observation (CliffsNotes, 2016). As shown, the child follows the instructions of the older, more experienced child. The theory also suggests that an improvement for that particular task will be made when there is repetition, practice, and a motivation to continue.

At this stage, movements are also visibly more confident and assured in comparison to the unsteady movements made during infancy. The child’s ability to perform gross motor tasks improve, including skills that require large muscles (i.e., running, jumping) with an easier and smoother gait. Though fine motor skills also improve, but to a lesser degree. This is evident in how the child grips the basketball, requiring both hands to hold it, and positioning the hands underneath so it does not fall out of her hands. Still, she is able to hold the ball in the first place, and such tasks like throwing and playing catch with these larger balls first appear to be possible and effective in this stage (Oswalt).

References:

CliffsNotes. (2016). Physical Development: Age 2–6. Retrieved from CliffsNotes: https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/psychology/development-psychology/physical-cognitive-development-age-26/physical-development-age-26

Oswalt, A. (n.d.). Early Childhood Physical Development: Gross and Fine Motor Development . Retrieved from Grace Point Wellness: https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child-development-parenting-early-3-7/article/12755-early-childhood-physical-development-gross-and-fine-motor-development

Later Childhood (2)

Adolescence (1)

During adolescence, physical changes are most associated with sexual maturity. An increased hormone production during this time, triggers a growth spurt causing many physical changes in the body (Boyd, Johnson, & Bee, 2017). One of these changes is strength level. It changes as your lean muscle mass and skeletal system develop. At the beginning of this period, muscle mass is generally the same for both males and females, but males receive the advantage after puberty (Healthwise Staff, 2018) Females in comparison, become more susceptible to fat cell growth. Nevertheless, both genders will receive an increase in strength due to the growing muscle fibers. This is displayed in the video, as they have enough strength and force to accelerate the ball into the net.

Skeletal system is also rapidly growing, and many adolescents experience growth spurts. It becomes awkward and difficult to adjust to the growing body, having to control and coordinate with growing limbs, and the larger body (Healthwise Staff, 2018). The new height could be advantageous to certain skills, one of them being the basketball free throw shown in the video; with the increased height, there is easier access to the net. However, these gains could also bring in growing pains. Their bodies may be growing, but they also are not able to completely handle the stress that they are put on as well as mature bones can.

One of the biggest things you may notice in comparison to the previous age group is the significant skill improvement in carrying out the task. Some of this could be specific to the individual in the video. Another reason is due to improved coordination that occurs as a result of the joint development during adolescence (pearson). In addition, adolescents generally attain a better grip on hand-eye coordination and spatial awareness due to more experience (RaisingChildren, 2017). All these are impressive skill gains are demonstrated in how the individual shoots. She has proper, stance and balance, and is able to position herself in front of the net correctly.

The sort of planning that goes into all these skills also require a proper sense of thinking. During adolescence, the brain continues to develop and they experience skill gains in planning, problem-solving, and decision-making. One of the logical skills that adolescents gain, hypothetico-deductive reasoning, could play a factor to shooting a free-throw (Boyd, Johnson, & Bee, 2017). They are able to mentally construct and come to a conclusion of what may be the best hypothetical play-through to get the ball into the net. Adolescents are able to process information more efficiently and faster and thus, they are able to combine all these different skills and execute it properly into the free-throw. It is important to note that these skills grow at different rates for different individuals.

References:

Boyd, D., Johnson, P., & Bee, H., (2017). Lifespan Development (6th Ed.). Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson.

Healthwise Staff. (2018, March 28). Adolescent Sensory and Motor Development . Retrieved from HealthLinkBC: https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/health-topics/te7268

RaisingChildren. (2017, December 11). Physical changes in puberty: girls and boys . Retrieved from raisingchildren.net.au: https://raisingchildren.net.au/pre-teens/development/puberty-sexual-development/physical-changes-in-puberty

Early Adulthood (2)

Later Adulthood (2)

Later Adulthood (1)

The participant in focus a male in late adulthood performing a basketball free throw, from the free throw line. For this analysis, late adulthood is classified as any person(s) over the age of 60. Late adulthood brings many age-related physical changes to the body. With age, the integrity of neuronal connections throughout the brain and body begin to deteriorate naturally, which can lead to sensory, motor, and cognitive deficits. Sarcopenia, a degenerative loss of muscle tissue, can begin to progress as early as 30 years of age, and it is associated with profound changes in skeletal muscle composition, causing decreased strength and aerobic capacity (Fielding et al., 2011). More specifically, older adults experience an increasingly rapid loss of muscle mass and muscular strength, with males losing up to twice the muscle mass as females (Goodpaster et al., 2006). In addition to these, coordination also begins to decline due to the degradation of myelin in motor neurons. Taking these factors into account, we can see that this process has begun in the male participant in the video. He shoots the basketball by holding both elbows off to the side, a compensatory strategy which biomechanically maximizes his force output towards the basketball net in order to reach it, as well as steady his hands in order to aim the ball more efficiently. If he was in the later stages of this age group, you might see slower and more staggered movements due to the lack of synchrony and efficiency of his muscles, because of progression of neural degradation.

Another age-related decline important to note is the deterioration of the vestibular system. Allen et al. note that an increase in age is associated with neuronal and hair cell loss within the inner ears, causing deficits in balance and coordination which is associated with an increased number of falls in the older adult population (Allen et al., 2016). In the video, the participant demonstrates the beginnings of a balance deficit by how he is standing. He stands with his feet wider than shoulder width and with his toes pointing outwards, maximizing the steadiness in his base of support. He also demonstrates a slight knee bend upon executing the shot, while leaning his upper extremity posteriorly to keep his center of balance as close to his body and upright as possible. In the early adulthood analysis, the participant was more comfortable bending her knees and leaning forward, shifting her center of balance infront of her. Though neither participants were off-balance, there is a clear difference in how age affects balance in gait.

References:

Allen, D. (2017). Age-Related Vestibular Loss: Current Understanding and Future Research Directions. Frontiers Research Topics. doi:10.3389/978-2-88945-300-9

Fielding, R. A., Vellas, B., Evans, W. J., Bhasin, S., Morley, J. E., Newman, A. B., … Zamboni, M. (2011). Sarcopenia: An Undiagnosed Condition in Older Adults. Current Consensus Definition: Prevalence, Etiology, and Consequences. International Working Group on Sarcopenia. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association,12(4), 249-256. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2011.01.003

Park, S. W., Goodpaster, B. H., Strotmeyer, E. S., Kuller, L. H., Broudeau, R., Kammerer, C., … Newman, A. B. (2007). Accelerated Loss of Skeletal Muscle Strength in Older Adults With Type 2 Diabetes: The Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study. Diabetes Care,30(6), 1507-1512. doi:10.2337/dc06-2537

Later Adulthood (2)

Later Adulthood (1)

The participant in focus a male in late adulthood performing a basketball free throw, from the free throw line. For this analysis, late adulthood is classified as any person(s) over the age of 60. Late adulthood brings many age-related physical changes to the body. With age, the integrity of neuronal connections throughout the brain and body begin to deteriorate naturally, which can lead to sensory, motor, and cognitive deficits. Sarcopenia, a degenerative loss of muscle tissue, can begin to progress as early as 30 years of age, and it is associated with profound changes in skeletal muscle composition, causing decreased strength and aerobic capacity (Fielding et al., 2011). More specifically, older adults experience an increasingly rapid loss of muscle mass and muscular strength, with males losing up to twice the muscle mass as females (Goodpaster et al., 2006). In addition to these, coordination also begins to decline due to the degradation of myelin in motor neurons. Taking these factors into account, we can see that this process has begun in the male participant in the video. He shoots the basketball by holding both elbows off to the side, a compensatory strategy which biomechanically maximizes his force output towards the basketball net in order to reach it, as well as steady his hands in order to aim the ball more efficiently. If he was in the later stages of this age group, you might see slower and more staggered movements due to the lack of synchrony and efficiency of his muscles, because of progression of neural degradation.

Another age-related decline important to note is the deterioration of the vestibular system. Allen et al. note that an increase in age is associated with neuronal and hair cell loss within the inner ears, causing deficits in balance and coordination which is associated with an increased number of falls in the older adult population (Allen et al., 2016). In the video, the participant demonstrates the beginnings of a balance deficit by how he is standing. He stands with his feet wider than shoulder width and with his toes pointing outwards, maximizing the steadiness in his base of support. He also demonstrates a slight knee bend upon executing the shot, while leaning his upper extremity posteriorly to keep his center of balance as close to his body and upright as possible. In the early adulthood analysis, the participant was more comfortable bending her knees and leaning forward, shifting her center of balance infront of her. Though neither participants were off-balance, there is a clear difference in how age affects balance in gait.

(430 words)

References

Allen, D. (2017). Age-Related Vestibular Loss: Current Understanding and Future Research Directions. Frontiers Research Topics. doi:10.3389/978-2-88945-300-9

Fielding, R. A., Vellas, B., Evans, W. J., Bhasin, S., Morley, J. E., Newman, A. B., … Zamboni, M. (2011). Sarcopenia: An Undiagnosed Condition in Older Adults. Current Consensus Definition: Prevalence, Etiology, and Consequences. International Working Group on Sarcopenia. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association,12(4), 249-256. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2011.01.003

Park, S. W., Goodpaster, B. H., Strotmeyer, E. S., Kuller, L. H., Broudeau, R., Kammerer, C., … Newman, A. B. (2007). Accelerated Loss of Skeletal Muscle Strength in Older Adults With Type 2 Diabetes: The Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study. Diabetes Care,30(6), 1507-1512. doi:10.2337/dc06-2537

Conclusion

It is apparent in these videos that throughout childhood, children are still learning to develop gross motor skills, fine motor skills, and their overall muscle mass has not yet fully developed. It is for these reasons, that both the 3-year-old, and 7 years old must use a lot of effort to complete the shot, but in the end, are still physically unable to complete it successfully. However, over time, as the body matures, muscles grow, we become leaner and stronger, both the adolescent and young adult, are more capable in producing a successful shot. With time, our muscles begin to deteriorate, our balance and coordination decline, however, this does not always mean an older adult is still not capable of performing the task successfully, which is clear by this video. These videos prove that while you are younger something may be difficult, but with time, and as you grow, the skill that once seemed so difficult is actually easy. As Michael Jordan would say, “I can accept failure, but I can’t accept trying”. #justdoit

Conclusion

It is apparent in these videos that throughout childhood, children are still learning to develop gross motor skills, fine motor skills, and their overall muscle mass has not yet fully developed. It is for these reasons, that both the 3-year-old, and 7 years old must use a lot of effort to complete the shot, but in the end, are still physically unable to complete it successfully. However, over time, as the body matures, muscles grow, we become leaner and stronger, both the adolescent and young adult, are more capable in producing a successful shot. With time, our muscles begin to deteriorate, our balance and coordination decline, however, this does not always mean an older adult is still not capable of performing the task successfully, which is clear by this video. These videos prove that while you are younger something may be difficult, but with time, and as you grow, the skill that once seemed so difficult is actually easy. As Michael Jordan would say, “I can accept failure, but I can’t accept trying”. #justdoit

Early Childhood (1)

Early Childhood (2)

Differences in motor skills are apparent in a 2-year old versus a 6-year old, thus it is important to note that the child being filmed in the video is 3-years old and may not be able to carry out tasks as the older ones in this age range.

Though physical growth such as weight and height in early childhood is significantly slower than the years preceding (infancy), motor skills continue to develop. This age range is often associated with independence and exploratory behaviour (Boyd, Johnson, & Bee, 2017). Their movements dictate purpose with control allowing them to achieve the tasks that they set out to complete. This purposeful action is evident as shown in the video. The child is able to complete the task of shooting the ball with minimal help and attempts to properly carry out the skill by first bouncing the ball, positioning herself, and propel the ball with force in the direction towards the net; all actions have intent.

One thing you may notice is that the child is imitating the behaviour of the older child when attempting the free-throw. This may be applicable to Bandura’s theory of observational learning, where he states that children are biologically capable of learning through observation (CliffsNotes, 2016). As shown, the child follows the instructions of the older, more experienced child. The theory also suggests that an improvement for that particular task will be made when there is repetition, practice, and a motivation to continue.

At this stage, movements are also visibly more confident and assured in comparison to the unsteady movements made during infancy. The child’s ability to perform gross motor tasks improve, including skills that require large muscles (i.e., running, jumping) with an easier and smoother gait. Though fine motor skills also improve, but to a lesser degree. This is evident in how the child grips the basketball, requiring both hands to hold it, and positioning the hands underneath so it does not fall out of her hands. Still, she is able to hold the ball in the first place, and such tasks like throwing and playing catch with these larger balls first appear to be possible and effective in this stage (Oswalt).

References:

CliffsNotes. (2016). Physical Development: Age 2–6. Retrieved from CliffsNotes: https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/psychology/development-psychology/physical-cognitive-development-age-26/physical-development-age-26

Oswalt, A. (n.d.). Early Childhood Physical Development: Gross and Fine Motor Development . Retrieved from Grace Point Wellness: https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child-development-parenting-early-3-7/article/12755-early-childhood-physical-development-gross-and-fine-motor-development

Later Childhood (2)

Later Childhood (1)

In the basketball free-throw, there are a lot of impressive physical changes that can be seen in the Later Childhood stage (6-12 year olds). At this age, girls are ahead of boys in their rate of growth and have almost attained their full adult height (Boyd, Johnson, & Bee, 2017). In the basketball free-throw, height will help the child get the basketball closer to the basket. In addition, girls begin to develop more body fat and less muscle than boys. In a recent study, “health-related physical fitness had moderate tracking from childhood to adolescence and increases in body adiposity from childhood to adolescence are associated with a reduction in physical fitness” (Werneck et al., 2019). As seen in the video, girls may have a harder time generating the power needed to get the basketball to the basket because they have less muscle tissue than boys.

In the Later Childhood stage, there are rapid improvements in large-muscle coordination, strength and speed. Therefore, children become increasingly skilled at activities such as basketball free throws. Most importantly, hand-eye coordination improves and this allows children between 6-12 to do more complex and skilful activities in ball based sports. In addition, children in the Later Childhood stage see improvements in their fine motor coordination too. This results from maturation of the wrist which occurs faster in girls than boys. This can help in controlling the release of the basketball free-throw. In fact, a study found that “healthy groups of both flexibility tests exhibited significantly better scores of muscle competence than the participants under the healthy zone” (Lopes et al., 2016) emphasizing the importance of physical fitness in children to reach proper levels of muscle competence.

During the basketball free-throw, boys will have better speed and strength to launch the ball higher faster, but girls will have better coordination with the ball in their hands. These differences in gender are caused by skeletal and muscular maturation. Overall, the differences in joint maturation, strength and speed are small at the Later Childhood stage. In fact, in a study done on children born before the 30th week of gestation aged 6-7 showed that “premature children had worse results than full-term ones in hand function… and results for the muscle tone were also significantly worse than those in control group, as well as the total outcome for the movement coordination” (Majewska, Zajkiewicz, Wacław-Abdul, Baran, & Szymczyk, 2018)

The pattern of brain development in the Later Childhood stage shows a steady increase in the myelinization of neural axons in the cerebral cortex. Development in these areas may be linked to the rapid improvement in gross and fine motor skill improvement and hand-eye coordination, especially in 6-8-year-olds. This development in motor brain areas could help children play sports such as basketball and be more successful at the basketball free-throw.

References:

Werneck, A. O., Silva, D. R., Oyeyemi, A. L., Fernandes, R. A., Romanzini, M., Cyrino, E. S., … Ronque, E. R. (2019). Tracking of physical fitness in elementary school children: The role of changes in body fat. American Journal of Human Biology.

Boyd, D., Johnson, P., & Bee, H., (2017). Lifespan Development (6th Ed.). Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson.

Lopes, L., Póvoas, S., Mota, J., Okely, A. D., Coelho-E-Silva, M. J., Cliff, D. P., … Santos, R. (2016). Flexibility is associated with motor competence in schoolchildren. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 27(12), 1806-1813.

Majewska, J., Zajkiewicz, K., Wacław-Abdul, K., Baran, J., & Szymczyk, D. (2018). Neuromotor Development of Children Aged 6 and 7 Years Born before the 30th Week Gestation. BioMed Research International, 2018, 1-12.

Adolescence (1)

During adolescence, physical changes are most associated with sexual maturity. An increased hormone production during this time, triggers a growth spurt causing many physical changes in the body (Boyd, Johnson, & Bee, 2017). One of these changes is strength level. It changes as your lean muscle mass and skeletal system develop. At the beginning of this period, muscle mass is generally the same for both males and females, but males receive the advantage after puberty (Healthwise Staff, 2018) Females in comparison, become more susceptible to fat cell growth. Nevertheless, both genders will receive an increase in strength due to the growing muscle fibers. This is displayed in the video, as they have enough strength and force to accelerate the ball into the net.

Skeletal system is also rapidly growing, and many adolescents experience growth spurts. It becomes awkward and difficult to adjust to the growing body, having to control and coordinate with growing limbs, and the larger body (Healthwise Staff, 2018). The new height could be advantageous to certain skills, one of them being the basketball free throw shown in the video; with the increased height, there is easier access to the net. However, these gains could also bring in growing pains. Their bodies may be growing, but they also are not able to completely handle the stress that they are put on as well as mature bones can.

One of the biggest things you may notice in comparison to the previous age group is the significant skill improvement in carrying out the task. Some of this could be specific to the individual in the video. Another reason is due to improved coordination that occurs as a result of the joint development during adolescence (pearson). In addition, adolescents generally attain a better grip on hand-eye coordination and spatial awareness due to more experience (RaisingChildren, 2017). All these are impressive skill gains are demonstrated in how the individual shoots. She has proper, stance and balance, and is able to position herself in front of the net correctly.

The sort of planning that goes into all these skills also require a proper sense of thinking. During adolescence, the brain continues to develop and they experience skill gains in planning, problem-solving, and decision-making. One of the logical skills that adolescents gain, hypothetico-deductive reasoning, could play a factor to shooting a free-throw (Boyd, Johnson, & Bee, 2017). They are able to mentally construct and come to a conclusion of what may be the best hypothetical play-through to get the ball into the net. Adolescents are able to process information more efficiently and faster and thus, they are able to combine all these different skills and execute it properly into the free-throw. It is important to note that these skills grow at different rates for different individuals.

References:

Boyd, D., Johnson, P., & Bee, H., (2017). Lifespan Development (6th Ed.). Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson.

Healthwise Staff. (2018, March 28). Adolescent Sensory and Motor Development . Retrieved from HealthLinkBC: https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/health-topics/te7268

RaisingChildren. (2017, December 11). Physical changes in puberty: girls and boys . Retrieved from raisingchildren.net.au: https://raisingchildren.net.au/pre-teens/development/puberty-sexual-development/physical-changes-in-puberty

Early Adulthood (2)

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