Along the Silk Road

History isn’t silent, it’s just waiting to be heard… 🏛️📜 By Olivier Goossens, MA Ancient History

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A two piece nishiki-e (colored woodblock print) series depicting a class at terakoya (private educational school), painted by Issunshi Hanasato During the Kōka period (1844-1848), Japan, 1844. Tokyo Metropolitan Library (ID: 3920-C1-1,2) The first terakoya appeared in the early seventeenth century as extensions of Buddhist temple schools. Before the Edo period, formal schools mainly served the children of samurai and ruling families. However, the rise of the merchant class during the Edo period greatly increased the popularity of terakoya. They became widespread in major cities such as Edo and Osaka, as well as in rural and coastal areas. In Edo, attendance reached around 70% of children by the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The terakoya were abolished during the Meiji era, when the government introduced a new education system (gakusei) in 1872, establishing public schools to provide basic education to the entire population.

The curriculum focused mainly on reading and writing, but also included arithmetic using the abacus (soroban), history, and geography. Girls could also learn sewing, the tea ceremony, flower arranging (ikebana), and other arts. Classes were usually held in the homes of samurai, Buddhist priests, or ordinary citizens. Teachers, known as shishō or tenarai-shishō, were usually commoners, although some were samurai or Buddhist monks. Some terakoya were also run by Shinto priests or physicians.

Unlike schools that focused mainly on practical everyday skills, terakoya offered a broader education. Students began with calligraphy, copying examples from their instructors (tehon). Once they mastered basic writing, they studied textbooks known as ōraimono, which dated back to the Heian period and had originally been used mainly to educate samurai. Written in kanji and kana, these books covered practical topics such as household tasks and conversation, as well as moral values, history, and geography.

Although only a few terakoya offered commercial courses for merchant children, arithmetic with the soroban became increasingly popular toward the end of the Edo period.

Together with the han schools, the terakoya system contributed to a relatively high level of literacy in Japan by the end of the Edo period. While reliable statistics are unavailable, it is estimated that around 50% of men and 20% of women could read, write, and perform basic arithmetic.

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New article!

The Qazvin school of painting occupies a pivotal position in the evolution of Safavid art, representing the transition between the monumental court style of Tabriz and the highly individualistic painting of seventeenth-century Isfahan. Emerging after Shah Tahmasp I transferred the Safavid capital from Tabriz to Qazvin in the mid-sixteenth century, the school developed under complex political, religious, and cultural circumstances. Although firmly rooted in the artistic traditions of Herat and Tabriz, the painters of Qazvin gradually established a distinctive visual language characterized by elongated figures, lyrical compositions, sophisticated colour harmonies, monumental wall painting, and the growing popularity of single-page paintings. The period also witnessed the production of important royal manuscripts, most notably the Shahnameh of Shah Isma’il II, while serving as the formative environment for artists whose work profoundly influenced the subsequent Isfahan school. This article examines the historical circumstances behind the emergence of the Qazvin school, its stylistic characteristics, its principal artists, and its lasting contribution to Persian painting.

Read the full piece here: https://alongthesilkroad.com/2026/07/29/the-qazvin-school-of-persian-painting-artistic-innovation-court-patronage-and-its-legacy-in-safavid-art/

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Frontispice of a manuscript of the Kitāb al-Aghānī (Book of Songs) of Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani. It may be a representation of Badr al-Din Lu'lu' (died 1259), Ruler of Mosul. His name (بدر الدين لولو‎) is readable on the tiraz bands of the sleeves, 1217-1219. National Library of Turkey (Milli Kütüphane) Kitāb al-Aghānī (The Book of Songs) is a monumental 10th-century Arabic anthology by Abū al-Farāj al-Isfahānī, spanning over 20 volumes, 10,000 pages, and containing more than 16,000 verses. The author reportedly spent 50 years compiling it.

The work has three main sections:

The 100 Best Songs selected for Caliph Harūn al-Rashīd.

Songs by royal composers.

Songs personally selected by the author.

Covering the period from pre-Islamic Arabia to the late 9th century CE, it combines poetry, music, historical accounts, biographies, and performance instructions. Its detailed biographical notes make it a major source for the history, literature, music, and social life of the medieval Arab world.

The 14th-century historian Ibn Khaldūn praised it as the definitive record of Arab cultural achievements, calling it an unrivaled resource for students of literature.

The earliest surviving manuscript dates to 1131 and is held in the Feyzullah Library in Istanbul. A famous illustrated manuscript from 1217–1219, produced in Mosul for the Zengid governor Badr al-Dīn Lū'lū', originally consisted of 20 volumes with miniatures, of which only six illustrations survive today.

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Shurpanakha demands vengeance, from the "Shangri" Ramayana, Northern India, Pahari kingdoms, c. 1700. Cleveland Museum of Art (ID: 2018.107) In a dramatic climax, the artists introduce the demon king, Ravana (the Howler), archvillain of the Ramayana. He has 10 crowned heads and 20 arms. He grasps a different deadly weapon in each hand; they reveal his supreme powers. The demon Shurpanakha’s nose and ears are healing, but her desire for revenge is stronger than ever. She gestures emphatically at her brother Ravana, urging him to find a way to destroy Rama, perhaps by kidnapping Rama’s wife. More gold has been lavished on this painting than any other known from the “Shangri” Ramayana, suggesting that it is meant to stand out as a scene of primary importance. (Cleveland Museum of Art) The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of Hinduism, traditionally attributed to the sage Valmiki. Written in Sanskrit, it contains about 24,000 verses divided into seven books and is among the world's longest ancient epics. The story follows Rama, the seventh avatar of Vishnu, who is exiled from his kingdom of Ayodhya for 14 years. Accompanied by his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, Rama faces many challenges, including Sita's abduction by the demon king Ravana of Lanka. With the help of allies, Rama defeats Ravana, rescues Sita, and returns to Ayodhya to become king. The epic likely developed between the 8th century BCE and 3rd century CE, with multiple regional and religious versions emerging over time. Beyond its literary significance, the Ramayana has profoundly shaped Hindu culture, ethics, and ideals of righteous leadership, emphasizing virtues such as duty, honor and justice.

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Haydar-Khana Mosque, Baghdad, Iraq.

The Haydar-Khana Mosque is a historic mosque and madrasa located on al-Rashid Street in Baghdad, Iraq. Originally built on the site of a 12th-century Abbasid mosque, the current structure was constructed between 1819 and 1827 by the Mamluk ruler Dawud Pasha. It is widely regarded as one of Baghdad's finest examples of Ottoman-era architecture and one of the city's most important historical landmarks.

Beyond its religious role, the mosque became a major center of Iraq's political and social life. Nicknamed the "Revolutionary Mosque," it played a key role in the 1920 Iraqi Revolt against British rule by hosting meetings, speeches, and demonstrations that promoted Iraqi unity and independence. It continued to serve as a gathering place for political protests throughout the 20th century, including opposition to British influence and the Anglo-Iraqi Treaties.

Architecturally, the mosque features a square layout, marble entrances, a large blue dome flanked by smaller domes, a minaret, thick walls designed for Baghdad's climate, and decorative blue-and-gold Qur'anic tilework. It also includes prayer halls, a madrasa, and a library.

Since the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, the mosque has suffered from neglect and deterioration despite its historical importance. In 2019, it attracted public attention after a social media controversy involving a model photographed inside the mosque, sparking debate over appropriate use of religious sites.

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Kay Kāvus on his flying throne, illustration from a Persian Shahnameh manuscript, 1674.

Kay Kāvus is a legendary king of Greater Iran in Persian mythology and a central character in the Shāhnāmeh. He is the son of Kay Qobād, the father of Seyāvash, and the grandfather of Kay Khosrow, who eventually succeeds him. He rules Iran for 150 years, often relying on the hero Rostam to rescue him from the consequences of his reckless decisions.

One of his most famous legends is the Flying Throne, a wooden and golden throne lifted by trained eagles attracted to meat attached above it. Kay Kāvus uses it in an attempt to fly to China, but the eagles tire, causing the throne to crash. Rostam later rescues him.

According to the Bundahishn, Kay Kāvus also built five magnificent mansions of gold, glass, and steel. These were said to contain miraculous springs that restored youth and granted immortality.

The historian Al-Masudi recounts another legend in which Kay Kāvus builds a tower to challenge God and later invades Yemen. He is captured by King Chammar, but after four years is freed by Rostam, who defeats Chammar. Kay Kāvus returns to Persia with Chammar's daughter Sodâ, who had secretly helped him during his captivity.

Modern historian Dariush Zolfaghari interprets Kay Kāvus as more than a mythical ruler: in the Shāhnāmeh, he symbolizes the defense of Iranian cultural identity, political legitimacy, and national heritage, with his reign illustrating that warfare is as much about preserving civilization as conquering territory.

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New article!  During the early 18th century BCE, the Ancient Near East was a constant battleground between various warlords and kings who wanted to extend their influence over their neighbouring countries. However, besides hostility, there was also room for friendship. One could not take on the whole world, and alliances were therefore crucial in cementing one’s place in the complex patchwork of kingdoms and city-states. In an age of kings, dynastic marriages were the most common and efficient way to establish friendship between two royal houses. For the Old Babylonian period (c. 1894–1595 BCE), such political unions are nowhere so vividly attested as in the city of Mari. Hundreds of letters shed light on the complex process and consequences of arranging a political marriage. This article wishes to address this topic through one concrete example: the union between Princess Beltum and King Yasmaḫ-Adad. The source material not only informs us of the wider political implications of their matrimony but also gives us some rare insights into the personal side of such a marriage.

Read the full piece here: https://alongthesilkroad.com/2026/07/19/a-princess-destined-to-become-a-queen-in-an-unknown-land-beltum-of-qatna-18th-century-bce/ (or click the link in the bio)

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Old Babylonian (c. c. 1894–1595 BCE) hematite cylinder seal. The king makes an animal offering to Shamash. The style of this seal suggests that it originated from a workshop in Sippar, the site of Shamash's main sanctuary, the Ebabbar.

Sippar (Sumerian: Zimbir) was an ancient Sumerian and later Babylonian city located on the east bank of the Euphrates in present-day Iraq, north of Babylon. It was one of the oldest and most significant cities in Mesopotamia, inhabited from the Uruk period through the Parthian period, with its greatest prominence during the Akkadian, Old Babylonian, Kassite, and Neo-Babylonian eras. Sippar was best known as the religious center of the sun god Shamash (Utu), whose famous temple, the Ebabbar ("White House"), made the city an important place of worship and justice. It also served as a major economic center, particularly for wool production and the manufacture of finely crafted cylinder seals.

Throughout its history, Sippar changed hands multiple times. It joined a failed rebellion against the Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin, later became part of the expanding Babylonian kingdom under Sumu-la-El, and flourished during the reign of Hammurabi, who reinforced its city walls and likely erected the Code of Hammurabi there. After Babylon's fall to the Hittites, Sippar came under Kassite, Elamite, Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and finally Achaemenid Persian rule, surrendering peacefully after the Persian conquest in 539 BCE. Archaeologists have uncovered thousands of cuneiform tablets at the site, making Sippar one of the most valuable sources of information about ancient Mesopotamian religion, administration, and daily life. The city is also associated with later traditions, including the Babylonian flood hero Xisuthros and the possible biblical city of Sepharvaim.

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A puja ceremony at the Besakih Temple, eastern Bali, Indonesia. Photo: Wikipedia (user: Paco Pater) Besakih Temple is the largest, holiest, and most important Hindu temple complex in Bali, Indonesia. Located on the slopes of Mount Agung at an elevation of nearly 1,000 meters, it consists of 23 interconnected temples, with Pura Penataran Agung serving as the principal sanctuary. The complex is arranged on six terraced levels, connected by stairways and gateways that symbolically guide worshippers toward the sacred mountain.

Although its exact origins remain uncertain, the site likely dates back over 2,000 years, with foundations resembling prehistoric megalithic structures. It has been a Hindu place of worship since at least the late 13th century and became the state temple of Bali's Gelgel dynasty in the 15th century.

The temple's central ritual focus is the padmasana (lotus throne), dating from around the 17th century. During the 1963 eruption of Mount Agung, lava flows narrowly missed the complex, an event regarded by Balinese Hindus as a divine miracle.

Besakih remains an active religious center, hosting more than 70 annual festivals based on the 210-day Balinese Pawukon calendar. Although it was nominated for UNESCO World Heritage status in 1995, the nomination was withdrawn in 2015.

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Chinese Rooster Painting, by Li Di (1100-1197). Invaluable Li Di (Chinese: 李迪; c. 1100–after 1197) was a distinguished court painter of the Song dynasty, celebrated for his refined depictions of flowers, birds, bamboo, and animals in motion. Born in Heyang, now part of Meng County in Henan Province, he served at the Imperial Painting Academy and was a member of the Academy of Worthies. His artistic career extended through the reigns of the Song emperors Xiaozong, Guangzong, and Ningzong. Although the exact dates of his birth and death remain uncertain, his earliest signed painting is dated 1125, while his last known work was completed in 1197. Li Di's artistic legacy continued through his son, Li Demao, who also became a painter at the Imperial Painting Academy.

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New article online! In present-day minds, the Uyghur people are associated with Islam. Yet, this is a relatively recent development in their history. It is only after the integration of the Uyghur kingdom of Qocho (ca.840–14th century) into the Chagatai Khanate during the 14th century that they slowly began to convert to Islam. Long before that, in 762/763, the Uyghur kingdom adopted Manicheism as its state religion. But why would a steppe khaganate choose a religion that originated in Mesopotamia? And, why would they adopt a religion that prohibited the consumption of dairy products and meat, which represented a significant part of the steppe diet? Read the full article here: https://alongthesilkroad.com/2026/07/06/unveiling-uyghur-legacy-in-eurasian-history-ii-on-the-impact-of-manicheism-and-the-sogdian-elites-on-the-uyghur-khaganate-744-840/

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Betrayal of Judas, MS. Arm. d. 13 (fol. 12r.), by Mesrop of Khizan (Armenian illuminator, active 1605-1651). Bodleian Libraries.

Mesrop of Khizan (active 1605-1651) was a renowned Armenian manuscript illuminator, scribe, theologian, teacher, and book restorer. Born near Lake Van in the Ottoman Empire, he was relocated with his family to Isfahan, Persia, after Abbas I of Persia forcibly resettled many Armenians in 1604. Trained by his father, a painter, Mesrop spent over 40 years creating beautifully illuminated manuscripts, particularly Bibles and Gospels.

His notable works include the Gospel of 1608 and the Gospel of 1609, the latter preserved at the Bodleian Library and containing a moving account of the suffering of Armenians under Shah Abbas. Art historians praise his works for their energetic settings and symbolic imagery, such as The Baptism of Christ, which depicts Christ standing on a dragon, and Saint John the Evangelist (1615), now housed at the J. Paul Getty Museum. Around 30 of his illuminated manuscripts survive today and are held in major museums and libraries worldwide.

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Japanese suit of armour, 17th Century. Cincinnati Art Museum Japanese armour originated in the 4th century, with early cuirasses and helmets found in graves. During the Heian period (794–1185), distinctive samurai armour styles such as the ō-yoroi and dō-maru emerged, featuring lacquered leather and iron scales laced together with silk.

In the Sengoku period (1467–1615), warfare changed with the rise of ashigaru foot soldiers and the introduction of Portuguese matchlock guns. These developments led to the creation of tosei-gusoku ("modern armour"), which was lighter, simpler, and better suited to firearms.

During the peaceful Edo period (1603–1868), samurai continued wearing armour mainly as a symbol of status. Today, important collections of historic Japanese armour are preserved at Ōyamazumi Shrine and Kasuga Grand Shrine. A tradition also survives on Children's Day (May 5), when families display miniature samurai armour and helmets to celebrate strength and protection.

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Top of an Achaemenid column from Persepolis.

Persian columns were a distinctive architectural feature of the Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 500–330 BCE), most famously seen at the ancient city of Persepolis. They were used to support vast ceremonial halls called apadanas, such as the Hall of a Hundred Columns, which could accommodate thousands of people.

Key characteristics include:

Tall, fluted shafts that could reach up to 20 meters in height.

Double-animal capitals, usually featuring bulls, lions, griffins, or human-headed bulls placed back-to-back. These animals acted as structural brackets supporting roof beams.

Elaborate decorative elements, including volutes (spiral forms) and plant-inspired motifs.

The style emerged from a blend of influences from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Lydia, Elam, and Greece, brought together by craftsmen from across the Persian Empire. Despite these influences, the result was uniquely Persian.

Some scholars believe the animal capitals symbolized the cosmic struggle between the lion (Sun) and bull (Moon), linked to Nowruz, the Persian New Year celebration.

The tradition ended abruptly after Alexander the Great conquered Persia and burned Persepolis in 330 BCE. However, Persian column designs influenced later architecture, especially in India, including the pillars of Ashoka and other Mauryan monuments, as well as Buddhist architecture in Gandhara and western India. Elements of the style continued to appear in later Persian architecture even after the Achaemenid period.

Photo: Wikipedia (user: Luis Argerich)

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Extract from Kitab al-tibb by the theologian and philosopher Fakhr ad-Dīn ar-Rāzī or Fakhruddin Razi (1149-1209). Arabic Manuscripts Collection, New York Public Library. Fakhr ad-Dīn ar-Rāzī (1149–1209) was one of the most influential Muslim theologians, philosophers, and Qurʾān commentators in Islamic history. Born in Rayy (modern-day Iran), he received a broad education in theology and philosophy before traveling across Iran and Central Asia, debating scholars, advising rulers, and eventually settling near Herāt.

His greatest achievement was his monumental Qurʾān commentary, Mafāṭīḥ al-ghayb ("The Keys to the Unknown" or "The Great Commentary"), which remains one of the most respected commentaries ever written. He also authored around 100 works covering theology, philosophy, medicine, astrology, geometry, mineralogy, and grammar.

Living during a time of political instability and religious division, ar-Rāzī sought to reconcile Islamic teachings with rational philosophy, drawing on thinkers like Aristotle and Avicenna while remaining committed to Sunni orthodoxy. His works became classics of Islamic theology (kalām) and influenced generations of Muslim scholars.

Ar-Rāzī was also a renowned debater, known for presenting opposing views thoroughly before refuting them. While this method made his writings valuable sources on various Islamic sects, it also led some critics to accuse him of heresy. His aggressive personality, quick temper, and involvement in political conflicts earned him many enemies, and some accounts suggest he may have been poisoned rather than dying naturally.

Despite his controversial character, ar-Rāzī was widely recognized as a brilliant intellectual and was regarded by many as a major renewer of the Islamic faith. Although he lacked the originality and spiritual depth often attributed to Al-Ghazālī, his vast knowledge and analytical skill made his works foundational references for later Muslim theologians and philosophers.

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King Idrimi of Alalakh, 15th century BCE (made 14th century BCE?). British Museum Idrimi was the king of Alalakh during the Late Bronze Age, ruling around 1490–1465 BCE (or approximately 1450 BCE). He is primarily known from an inscription on a statue discovered at Alalakh in 1939. According to the inscription, he was the son of Ilim-Ilimma I, king of Halab (Aleppo), who lost his throne after the rise of Barattarna, king of Mitanni. Idrimi later gained control of Alalakh, likely with the support of the Habiru, establishing the Kingdom of Mukish as a vassal of Mitanni. He also campaigned against the Hittites and eventually made a treaty with Kizzuwatna.

Modern scholar Jacob Lauinger argues that while Idrimi was probably a real historical king, the statue and its inscription were likely produced later (c. 1400–1350 BCE). He suggests the inscription belongs to the Mesopotamian tradition of narû literature—semi-literary royal autobiographies meant to teach lessons and legitimize political authority, particularly by emphasizing Alalakh's relationship with Mitanni.

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The star sign Ophiuchus, miniature from the manuscript of The Book of Fixed Stars, commissioned by Ulugh Beg, probably Samarkand, c. 1430–1440. Bibliothèque nationale de France

Ulugh Beg (1394–1449), born Mīrzā Muhammad Tarāghāy bin Shāhrukh, was a Timurid sultan, astronomer, and mathematician. Renowned for his contributions to astronomy, trigonometry, and spherical geometry, he also promoted the arts and scholarship during the Timurid Renaissance. He founded the famous Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand (1424–1429), one of the leading observatories of the Islamic world, and established madrasahs in Samarkand and Bukhara, turning them into major centers of learning. Despite his scientific achievements, Ulugh Beg struggled as a ruler, failing to consolidate political power. He was eventually overthrown and assassinated in 1449.