Beyond

Preparing to CAE

[purplebuddhaquotes]

[emmastudies]

one of my lecturers printed us a step-by-step guide to writing an essay for an assignment we had. i decided to type it up and share it with you guys. i think for the most part it is really useful and a super simple way to break down your essay. hope this helps :~)

[theyuniversity]

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Kyoto, Japan

photo via eryn

[ultimate-passport]

Vaadhoo Beach - The Maldives 

[ashleydiscovers]

When everything is so blue it looks fake..

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[beyondandforward]

Prepositions after nouns and adjectives

Noun + preposition: related verbs and adjectives

Many nouns are followed by the same prepositions as their related verb or adjective.

A few are followed by different prepositions from their related adjective.

Some take a preposition where their related verb does not.

Noun + preposition + -ing or noun + preposition + noun

Most noun + preposition combinations can be followed either by an -ing form or a noun.

Some noun + preposition combinations are more often followed by a noun than an -ing form.

Noun + of + -ing or noun + to-infinitive

Some nouns can be followed by either of + -ing or a to-infinitive with little difference in meaning.

Some nouns have more than one meaning and are followed by either of + -ing  or to-infinitive depending on which meaning is used.

Some nouns can be followed by of + -ing, but not a to-infinitive.

Some nouns can be followed by a to-infinitive, but of + -ing.

Noun + in or noun + of

We use increase/decrease/rise/fall + in when talk about what is increasing or decreasing, and increase/decrease/rise/fall + of to talk about the amount of an increase or decrease.

Other nouns like this include: cut, decline, downturn, drop; gain, growth, jump, leap.

Adjective + preposition: expressing feelings

Many adjectives which refer to feelings or opinions are followed by particular prepositions.

Adjective + preposition: different meanings

Some adjectives are followed by different prepositions, depending on meaning.

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Complex prepositions and prepositions after verbs

Complex prepositions

Prepositions can be either simple (one word) or complex (two or more words).

Common examples of complex prepositions: in accordance with, as against, along with, with effect from, in the event of, in exchange of, irrespective of, on the part of, in place of, for the sake of, thanks to, by way of.

Some complex prepositions have a meaning similar to a simple preposition.

Verb + prepositions: common patterns

Verb + object + prepostional phrase

Verb + preposition + object + preposition + object

Verb + preposition + -ing

Verb + object + preposition + -ing

Verb + preposition + object + -ing

Phrasal verbs: word order

Some phrasal verbs can be used transitively or intransitively with the same meaning.

Others have different meanings when they are used transitively and intransitively.

With most phrasal verbs, the object can go before or after the particle.

With these verbs we tend to put the object after the particle if the object is long and we always put the object before the particle if the object is a pronoun.

If the object consists of two or more items connected with and, it can occur before or after the particle even if one of both of the items is a pronoun.

With some phrasal verbs the object must go after the particle.

With a few phrasal verbs, the object must go between the verb and the particle.

A few three-word phrasal verbs have two objects, one after the verb and the other after the particles.

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Nominalisation

We can sometimes use a noun or noun phrase for an idea usually expressed by a verb or adjective. This process is referred to as nominalisation. It is especially common in formal styles of writing.

An adverb modifying a verb changes to an adjective in a nominalised form.

The main noun in a noun phrase is often followed by one or more prepositional phrases (e.g. development of the area, rise in the level of radon gas in the soil).

We use nominalisation for a number of reasons:

to avoid mentioning the agent if we want to be impersonal or to make the agent less important.

to express two clauses more concisely as one clause.

to give a different focus to the sentence.

Do, give, have, make, take + noun

We can sometimes use a form with do/give/have/make/take + noun instead of a verb.

Often, the do/give/have/make/take + noun patterns are less formal than using a verb alone.

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Word order and emphasis

Fronting

We can emphasise a particular part of a sentence by moving it to the front of the sentence, changing the usual word order.

Cleft sentences

An it-cleft has the structure it + is/was + emphasised part + relative clause. The relative pronoun can be that, which, who or no relative pronoun. When and where are used only in informal English.

A sentence with wh-cleft usually has the structure what-clause + is/was + emphasised part. Sometimes we use all instead of what.

After the what-clause we usually use a singular form of be (is or was). However, informally, a plural form (are or were) is sometimes used before a plural noun.

We can sometimes put a wh-cleft at the end of a sentence.

To emphasise an action we can use a wh-cleft with what + subject + form of do + form of be + (to) + infinitive.

Inversion

Word orders inverted after certain words or phrases when these are put at the beginning of a sentence or clause in order to emphasise them. This kind of inversion is found mainly in formal speech and writing.

Inversion occurs after words and phrases with a ‘negative’ meaning:

the negative adverbs never (before), rarely, seldom, barely/hardly/scarcely....when/before; no sooner...than; nowhere; neither, nor.

Only + a time expression (e.g. after, later) or a prepositional phrase.

The prepositional phrases at no time, on no account, under/in no circumstances; in no way (or no way in informal language).

Expressions with not: not only, not until, not since, not for one moment, not once, not a + noun.

little with a negative meaning

Inversion also occurs after:

time sequence adverbs such as first, next, now, then with be or come. If there is a comma, or an intonation break in speech after the adverb, normal word order is used.

So + adjective ... that, emphasising the adjective.

Such + be.... that, emphasising the extent or degree of something.

Inversion in conditional sentences

In formal or literary English, we can use clauses beginning were, should and had, with inversion of subject and verb, instead of a hypothetical conditional.

In negative clauses with inversion, we don’t use contracted forms.

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Substitution and ellipsis

Substitution: one/ones

Use of one/ones:

We don’t usually use one/ones to replace an uncountable noun. Instead we use some.

to talk about a specific item

after the, unless it follows an adjective

or unless there is a descriptive phrase after one/ones

after a possessive adjective (e.g. my). Instead we prefer a possessive pronoun (e.g. mine) or a phrase with an adjective

However, one/ones is sometimes used after a possessive adjective in informal speech.

We don’t usually use ones on its own to replace a noun phrase.

We can either include or leave out one/ones after which, whichever; superlatives; either, neither, another, each (not every); the first/second/last; the other; this that, these, those; and often after colour adjectives.

Substitution: so + auxiliary verb + subject; neither, nor, not...either

We can use so instead of a clause after certain verbs to do with opinions (e.g. expect, suppose, think), but not after others (e.g. accept, know, be sure, hear).

Some verbs are commonly used before not or in not... so in short, negative replies.

Other verbs like include: appear, seem, believe, expect, imagine, think.

Before not we can use be afraid (=showing regret), assume, guess, hope, presume, suspect.

We can use to + auxiliary verb + subject to say that a second person does the same thing as a person already mentioned. In the negative we use neither, nor or not... either.

Substitution: do so

We can use a form of do so to replace a verb and the word of phrase that follows it to complete its meaning.

We can use do so where the verb describes an action, but avoid it with verbs that describe states and habitual actions.

Less formally, we use do it or do that with a similar meaning.

We use do (rather than do so) in informal English, especially after modals or perfect tenses (but note that we can often leave it out).

Ellipsis: leaving out words after auxiliary verbs and after to

We often leave out or change verbs to avoid repeating them.

We can sometimes use to instead of a clause beginning with a to-infinitive when it is clear what we are talking about.

We can use to or leave it out:

after certain verbs (e.g. agree, promise, start)

after most nouns (e.g. idea, opportunity) and adjectives (e.g. frightened, willing) that can be followed by a to-infinitive clause

after want and would like in if-clauses and wh-clauses

We don’t use to after like

We have to use to:

after verbs (e.g. expect, mean, need) which must have a complement

after a negative

When have (got) is a main verb in the first clause or sentence, we can often use either have (got) or do to avoid repetition in the following clause or sentence.

When have is followed by a noun to describe an action (e.g. have a shower, have a shave, have a good time) we usually use do.

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Reporting

Structures in the reported clause: that-clause

Reporting verbs can be followed by a number of structures in the reported clause.The most important ones with that-clauses are given below:

verb + that

verb + object + that

verb + (object) + that

verb + that + verb + object + to-infinitive

verb + (to/with + object) + that

We often leave out that in informal contexts, particularly with the most common reporting verbs (e.g. reckon, say, tell, think). However, we don’t usually leave out if the that-clause doesn’t immediately follow the verb.

Structures in the reported clause: to-infinitive and -ing

These are the most important structures with a to-infinitive or -ing form in the reported clause:

verb + to-infinitive

verb + object + to-infinitive

verb + (object) + to-infinitive

verb + to-infinitive or verb + that

verb + object + to-infinitive or verb + object + that

verb + -ing or verb + that

Verb tenses in reporting

When reporting, we often change the tense that was in the original.

We don’t usually change a past perfect verb.

We can use a present tense verb for a situation that still exists when we report it.

We usually use a past tense in the reporting clause. However, we can use the present simple to report current news or views, what is always said, or what many people say.

Modal verbs in reporting

A modal verb in the original sometimes changes in the report.

will changes to would, can to could, and may usually changes to might. However, if the situation we are reporting still exists or is in the future, modals don’t change if there is a present tense verb in the reporting clause

shall changes to would to talk about the future, and to should to report suggestions, recommendations and requests for advice

must doesn’t change or changes to had to when it is used to say it is necessary to do something

could, should, would, might, ought to and used to don’t usually change in the report

Reporting questions

The usual word order in the reported wh-, if- or whether-clause is the one we would use in a statement, and we don’t use a question mark or the do auxiliary.

We can use a negative form of do to report a negative question.

If the original question begins what, which or who, followed by be + complement, we can put the complement before or after be in the report.

To report a question with should asking for advice or information, we can use a to-infinitive.

We don’t use a to-infinitive to report a why question.

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The passive

We often use passive verbs:

when the agent is not known

when the agent is ‘people in general’

when the agent is unimportant, or is obvious

when we don’t want to say who the agent is

to describe procedures or processes, focusing on what was done rather than who did it

to avoid repeating the agent in a description or narrative

In informal contexts we often active sentences with a subject such as people, somebody/someone, something, we, they or you even when we do not know wjo the agent is. In more formal contexts we often use a passive to avoid mentioning an agent.

Some verbs describing states (e.g. have, become, seem) are not usually made passive.

However, other verbs describing states can be passive (e.g. intend, know, own).

Passive forms of verbs with two objects

verbs followed by object + complement in the active have one passive form.

Get + past participle; get/have + object + past participle

Get + past participle is most commonly used to talk about unwelcome events (e.g. get mugged), but we can also use it with positive events.

We don’t use get + past participle with verbs describing states.

We can use either have + object + past participle or (more informally) get + object + past participle.

to say that someone arranges for someone else to do something for them

to say that something unexpected, and usually unpleasant, happens to someone

We use a reflexive pronoun with get to suggest that the subject is responsible for their actions.

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Conjuctions and connectors

Sentence connectors and conjuctions.

A sentence connector links one sentence with another.

A conjuction links clauses within a single sentence.

To link two clauses, we use only one conjuction, not two.

We usually put a comma between clauses linked by a conjunction.

However, when because or while begin the second clause in a sentence, we don’t need a comma.

Sentence connectors usually come at the beginning of a sentence and less often at the end or in another position. The only ones that can’t come at the beginning are too and as well.

We usually put a comma after a sentence connector at the beginning or end of a sentence.

When a sentence connector comes elsewhere in a sentence, punctuation is more variable.

Sentence connectors can be used to link clauses in a sentence if the clauses are joined with and, but, or, so, or a semi-colon (;), colon (:) or dash (-).

Conjunctions: before, until

Sometimes we can use either before or until with little difference in meaning.

We use until, not before, when an action continues to a particular time and then stops.

Conjunctions: hardly, no sooner, scarcely

After hardly and scarcely the second clause usually begins with when or before; after no sooner it begins with than or when.

We often use the past perfect in a clause with hardly, no sooner or scarcely and a past simple in the other clause.

Sentence connectors: first(ly), at first, last(ly), at last

We use first to label the first point in a list and last or lastly to label the final point. We use at first to indicate that there is a contrast between past situations, and at last to show that something happened later than hoped or expected.

We don’t use at last to label the last point in a list.

However

However is often a sentence connector, but can also be used as an adverb when it is followed bu an adjective, adverb or much/many or as a conjunction when it means ‘in whatever way’.

Even so (sentence connector), even though (conjunction)

Even so has a meaning similar to however. We use even though to say that a fact doesn’t make the rest of the sentence untrue.

Sentence connectors: on the other hand, on the contrary

We use on the other hand when we compare or contrast two statements. We sometimes introduce the first statemnt with on the other hand.

On the contrary emphasises that we reject the first statement and accept the second.

Prepositions commonly confused with conjunctions and connectors.

These are prepositions, and can’t be used as conjunctions or sentence connectors: as well as, apart from, besides, despite/in spite of, due to, during.

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Noun clauses

A noun clause functions in a sentence in a similar way to a noun or noun phrase. Noun clauses usually begin with that or a wh-word (e.g. when, where, whether, whatever, how).

That-noun clauses

In informal contexts we often leave out that at the beginning of a that-noun clause.

We usually use the fact that (rather than that): when the noun clause is subject or after a preposition or after verbs such as change, face (up to) and overlook.

We can often use words like argument, assumption, belief, claim, idea, notion and view instead of fact.

Wh-noun clauses

When a wh-noun clause follows certain nouns (e.g. example, problem), we often have to include if before the wh-word.

Some verbs (e.g. advise, teach) must have an object before the wh-word.

Noun clauses beginning how are commonly used after certain verbs (e.g. decide, know).

We can use a wh-noun clause, but not that-noun clause, after a preposition.

We can also use noun clauses beginning with whatever (=anything, or it doesn’t matter what), whoever (the person/group who, or any person/group who) or whatever (=one thing or person from a limited number) to talk about things, people or times that are indefinite or unknown.

Rather than a wh-noun clause, we can often use a noun or pronoun which has a meaning related to the wh-word.

Other words used in this way include the place (rather than where), the time (rather than when), the way (rather than how) and somebody/someone (rather than who).

Whether and if

We can use whether as the wh-word in a noun clause when we talk about possible choices. Whether has a similar meaning to if.

Notice the difference between sentences with whether- and that-noun clauses.

In more formal contexts, particularly in writing, we can use as to with a meaning similar to ‘about’ or ‘concerning’ before a whether-noun clause.

We use whether, not if:

before or not

before a to-infinitive

usually after a preposition, and also after the verbs advise, choose, consider, debate, discuss, enquire, question

in a clause acting as a subject or complement

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