Vessel with decoration by the Painter of the Heptachord. From Tomb 297. Monte Abetone necropolis, Cerveteri. Second quarter of 7h century BCE. Painted pottery, H 45 cm. Cerveteri, Museo Archeologico.
Lippo Memmi, Maesta, 1317-1318, commissioned by Nello di Mino Tolomei for Palazzo Pubblico, San Gimignano, fresco.
Object 13: Lippo Memmi, Maesta for San Gimignano (1317–18) & Secular Imagery in the Sala del Consiglio
Visual Description Guide
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Fresco Maesta in the town hall (Palazzo Pubblico) of San Gimignano, a hill town dependent on Siena
• Adapts Simone Martini's Sienese Maesta: replaces Sienese patron saints with Nello Tolomei (the donor/Podestà) kneeling; San Gimignano's patron saint at left; Tolomei coat of arms in the baldacchino
• Secular images in Sala del Consiglio: battle frescoes, a large rotating map by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (now lost), a monochromatic fresco by Lippo Vanni recording a Sienese military victory in 1363
• Vanni fresco: episodic, graphic chronicle of battle — not naturalistic reconstruction; cities labeled, armies identified by heraldic flags
Major Themes to Address
• Civic imagery and political power: placing a copy of Siena's Maesta in San Gimignano's town hall is a direct assertion of Sienese political control
• Secular and sacred art in city government: town halls used the same visual language as churches to project authority
• Cultural exchange through artistic copying: the Maesta format travels from Siena outward as a language of civic-religious power
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• Nello's use of a Maesta format — normally sacred — in a political context shows how fluidly sacred and secular imagery overlapped in Italian city-states
• The presence of the donor's coat of arms transforms the sacred image into a statement of personal political authority
• The battle frescoes in the Sala del Consiglio represent a different visual register: reportorial, heraldic, civic — not devotional
Duccio, Maesta, 1308-11, commissioned by the Opera of Siena Cathedral for the high altar of Siena Cathedral. Tempera and gold leaf on panel
Object 12: Duccio di Buoninsegna, Maesta (Cathedral of Siena, 1308–11)
Visual Description Guide
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Very large double-sided altarpiece; front: enthroned Virgin and Child flanked by saints and angels; reverse: scenes from the Passion of Christ in individual panels
• Front: Siena's four patron saints kneel in the front row — saints Ansanus, Savinus, Crescentius, and Victor
• Elaborate gilded frame with finials; original context: free-standing under the cathedral dome, bathed in light from dome windows and Duccio's own stained-glass rose window
• Inscription at the Virgin's footstool names Duccio and asks the Virgin to grant peace to Siena
• Virgin's throne: more convincingly three-dimensional than the Ruccellai Madonna; Christ child more softly and realistically rendered
• Reverse: Crucifixion on the central axis, given twice the space of other panels; Last Supper uses architectural space similar to Giotto's treatment
• Entry into Jerusalem: clear axis of movement, anecdotal rendering, two young men in trees (compare Giotto at Padua)
Major Themes to Address
• Civic and religious identity: the Maesta is simultaneously a cathedral altarpiece and a civic dedication — Siena formally dedicated itself to the Virgin after the Battle of Montaperti (1260)
• The artist as civic figure: Duccio's name prominently on the altarpiece reflects the rising status of artists in Italian city-states
• Sacred and secular interpenetration: both the cathedral and the Palazzo Pubblico commissioned the same subject, making the Maesta a civic as well as religious emblem
• Stylistic development: comparison with the Ruccellai Madonna shows Duccio's evolution — possibly influenced by a trip to Paris (c. 1297)
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• The Maesta is Siena's most important civic-religious commission: the procession carrying it to the cathedral on its completion was a public celebration of city and patron saint
• Duccio's inscription is a measure of the new status of artists — they now signed and celebrated their work publicly
• The simultaneous use of the same image in cathedral and town hall shows how completely civic and religious life were intertwined in Italian city-states
• The reverse panels demonstrate Duccio's mastery of narrative — dramatic intensity, spatial depth, consistent spatial envelope — rivaling Giotto while remaining distinctly Sienese
Giotto, Last Judgment, c.1303-1305 Arena Chapel, Padua, fresco, commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni
Object 11: Giotto, Last Judgment with Enrico Scrovegni (Scrovegni Chapel, entrance wall)
Visual Description Guide
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Entire entrance wall occupied by the Last Judgment composition
• Christ in majesty at center, flanked by choirs of angels and seated apostles
• Upper left: the Elect ascending; lower right quadrant: Hell with a large personification of evil devouring the damned
• Just over the door, at bottom center: Enrico Scrovegni kneels as donor, presenting a model of the chapel to three haloed figures (Gabriel, Virgin of Charity, Virgin Annunciate)
• Two representations of Judas: hanging disemboweled in Hell and receiving 30 pieces of silver on the altar arch opposite — framing the viewer from both sides
• Allegorical figure of Charity on the lower south wall wears a dalmatic (liturgical robe of the deacon)
Major Themes to Address
• Redemption and repentance: the chapel's entire program (from Annunciation at altar to Last Judgment at entrance) enacts the story of human salvation
• Usury as theological problem: Judas's double appearance ties the sin of greed/betrayal directly to Scrovegni's own financial sins
• Typological pairing: the Visitation (divinely inspired fertility) vs. Judas's betrayal (unnatural money-breeding) — the antithesis of usury is charity
• Conspicuous consumption redeemed: wealth spent on sacred art as a form of public piety and spiritual investment
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• The chapel is simultaneously a private penance and a public statement of status — these motives are not contradictory in this period
• The architectural theatricality (a real door behind the 'God the Father' panel, through which an angel-actor could descend) shows the chapel was also a performance space
• The beam of light entering on March 25 (Feast of the Annunciation) falls on the donor portrait — a sign of divine approval staged into the building's design
• The Last Judgment wall functions as a moral mirror: viewers walk toward redemption or damnation as they exit
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Small barrel-vaulted chapel; entire interior covered in frescoes (walls, vault, entrance wall)
• Vault painted as a starry blue sky with heavenly figures
• Side walls: three horizontal tiers of narrative scenes from the Life of the Virgin and Life of Christ; lowest tier: monochrome grisaille Virtues (south) and Vices (north)
• Lamentation: dead Christ lies at lower center; Virgin cradles his head, staring intensely into his closed eyes; mourning figures turn backs to viewer, drawing spectator into the scene
• Barren rocky outcropping and leafless tree in the background — symbolic of death; diagonal slope drives the eye downward to Christ's body
• Anguished angels catapult and thrash in the sky — unique to Giotto
• St. John the Evangelist spreads his arms back — iconographic eagle symbol and classical mourner gesture
Major Themes to Address
• Naturalism and psychological realism: Giotto's radical departure from Byzantine convention toward believable human emotion
• Urban piety and usury: Enrico Scrovegni's chapel as an act of expiation for his father's and his own sin of lending money at interest
• Mendicant preaching culture: accessible, emotionally powerful imagery aimed at a broad urban audience
• Donor patronage and social competition among the mercantile class
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• The Scrovegni Chapel is the touchstone of Giotto's art — the earliest universally accepted work; all attributions to Giotto are calibrated against it
• Giotto's naturalism was made possible by — and in turn reinforced — the Franciscan emphasis on Christ's real, human suffering
• The 'collapse of space' (viewer pulled into the scene) reflects Franciscan devotional practice: making the observer feel present at sacred events
• The program is carefully structured around the theme of redemption: from God the Father commissioning Gabriel at the altar, through Christ's life and death, to the Last Judgment at the entrance wall
Roman master for San Francesco, Kiss of Judas, Assisi, commissioned by the Franciscans from an unidentified Roman master, fresco
Object 9: Upper Church of San Francesco, Assisi: Architecture & Kiss of Judas Fresco
Visual Description Guide
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Aisleless double-storied basilica immediately recognizable as a palatine chapel form (compare Sainte-Chapelle, Paris); large expanses of wall ideal for fresco cycles
• Bundles of thin colonettes and crocket capitals show knowledge of French Gothic (Reims coronation church)
• Both upper and lower churches laid out as a tau (T-shaped cross) — echoing Francis's design for friars' habits
• Five-sided apse: number recalls the Five Wounds of Christ and Francis's stigmata
• Kiss of Judas fresco: Judas in sulphurous yellow robe; Christ holds a scroll (Early Christian law-giver type), stares forward calmly
• Christ extends his right arm in a gesture of address toward St. Peter (who cut off the servant's ear); crowd of soldiers and priests with lances and torches pressing in
• Christ's placid expression emphasizes divine cooperation with his captors rather than resistance
Major Themes to Address
• French Gothic influence in Italian sacred architecture: cultural exchange via the papal court
• Franciscan and papal identity: the building is simultaneously a Franciscan church and a papal palatine chapel
• Symbolic architecture: the tau cross plan, five-sided apse, and other features carry Franciscan theological meaning
• Bonaventure's Franciscan theology in fresco: the Kiss of Judas reflects the Lignum Vitae — Christ as willing, gracious victim
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• San Francesco is not simply a mendicant church — it is a papal throne site, a statement of Franciscan-papal alliance
• The frescoes repeat the subjects and compositions of Early Christian basilicas in Rome — asserting Franciscan continuity with the Church's Roman heritage
• The nave frescoes pair Old Testament scenes (right) with the Life of Christ (left), continuing the typological tradition of major Roman basilicas
• The calm, cooperative Christ of the Kiss of Judas is a Franciscan theological statement: his divinity is proven not by resistance but by grace
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Frescoes on walls of a private banking family chapel at the end of the right transept of Santa Croce
• Multiple narrative scenes from the Life of the Virgin arranged in horizontal tiers
• Upper tier: Joachim expelled from the Temple (clutching sacrificial lamb); Joachim in exile with angel appearing
• Middle tier: the Meeting at the Golden Gate — Joachim and Anna reuniting outside Jerusalem walls, linked only at arms, maintaining decorous reticence
• Right panel: the Birth of the Virgin — nursemaids admire the infant before the mother's bed
• Lower tiers: the Presentation of Mary at the Temple (dwarfed by massive steps) and the Marriage of the Virgin
• Trompe-l'oeil twisted columns divide scenes, demonstrating spatial illusionism; architecture more vertical and thinner than Giotto's style
Major Themes to Address
• Giotto's legacy: Gaddi was Giotto's leading pupil and ran his Florentine workshop in his absence
• Banking family patronage: Baroncelli family's commission demonstrates how wealthy Florentine merchants used chapels for social and spiritual capital
• Franciscan patronage: the Franciscan church of Santa Croce as a site for elite lay patronage and burial rights
• Comparison with Giotto: longer proportions, more decorous emotional restraint vs. Giotto's intense physical embrace at Padua
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• Reflects the continuation and transformation of Giotto's style through his workshop and pupils
• The commission illustrates the social function of private chapels in mendicant churches: wealth, family prestige, and spiritual benefit intertwined
• The architectural settings grow larger and more imposing than in Giotto's earlier work— space begins to overwhelm the figures
• The restrained emotional vocabulary (arms linked, not embracing) signals a shift in taste: decorum over raw emotion
Duccio, Enthroned Madonna and Child (Maestà), 1285, commissioned by the Confraternity of the Laudesi for their chapel in Santa Maria Novella, Florence. Tempera on panel, 14’ 9 1/8” x 9’ 6 1/8”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence
Object 7: Duccio di Buoninsegna, Ruccellai Madonna / Laudesi Altarpiece (1285)
Visual Description Guide
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Very large altarpiece; enthroned Virgin and Child at center on an elaborate gilded throne
• Surrounding angels kneel convincingly, bodies appearing to levitate — derived from French stained-glass compositional schemes
• 30 small roundels in the frame depicting saints (St. Catherine, St. Dominic, St. Zenobius, St. Peter Martyr)
• Drapery adheres more closely to physical forms beneath — Virgin's knee pushes against the robe
• Soft shift of the Virgin's body axis (compared to Cimabue's single-axis alignment) activates the figure
• Gold tooled border of Virgin's robe ripples in sinuous curvilinear pattern — elegant surface pattern and suggested fabric folds simultaneously
Major Themes to Address
• Northern (French Gothic) influence vs. Byzantine tradition: Duccio synthesizes both sources
• Dominican patronage: the Laudesi confraternity, lay group dedicated to praise of the Virgin, commissioned this for Santa Maria Novella
• Comparison with Cimabue's Maesta: the shift from Byzantine stiffness toward greater naturalism and graceful movement
• Civic and religious function: altarpiece serves both devotional and communal identity purposes
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• Marks a turning point in Florentine-Sienese painting: Duccio introduces French Gothic influence into an Italian Byzantine framework
• The roundels are tailored to the Dominican patrons — saints specific to Dominican
devotion and the confraternity's founder
• Comparison between Duccio and Cimabue reveals how artists were drawing on
multiple sources (Byzantine, French Gothic) simultaneously
• The 'softness' and activation of the figure are early hallmarks of the new naturalistic style that will dominate the 14th century
Key Terms & Concepts
• Confraternity of Laudesi
• Ruccellai Madonna
• French Gothic influence• Naturalism vs. Byzantine
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Double-sided polyptych altarpiece; one side: enthroned Christ flanked by martyrdoms of Sts. Peter and Paul; other side: enthroned St. Peter flanked by saints
• St. Peter in rigid frontal pose, holding oversized keys — symbols of papal authority
• Illusionistic space kept to a minimum; marble throne is imposing and symbolic
• Donor Cardinal Stefaneschi depicted in miniaturized scale presenting a tiny model of the altarpiece to St. Peter
• St. Peter Morone (the resigned pope) submits a manuscript — likely Stefaneschi's biography of him
• Signed by Giotto but attributed to workshop
Major Themes to Address
• Papal authority in Rome: the altarpiece equates Christ with his papal successors through paired imagery
• Donor portraiture: Stefaneschi's self-representation as patron reinforces the competitive patronage culture of the papal court
• Rome as Caput Mundi: the imagery asserts Rome's status as capital of Western Christendom even during the Avignon papacy
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• Painted for the canons' choir of Old St. Peter's — an elite liturgical space — making it an instrument of institutional authority
• The strict hierarchy of scale (donor miniaturized vs. enthroned saint) is a visual theology of power
• During the Avignon papacy (popes in France), Rome's physical monuments, relics, and art continued to assert the city's spiritual primacy
Pietro Cavallini, Birth of the Virgin(detail), c. 1290, mosaic. Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome.
Object 5: Pietro Cavallini, Birth of the Virgin (Mosaic, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, c. 1291)
Visual Description Guide
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Band of narrative mosaic scenes added below an existing 12th-century apse mosaic
• Depicts the birth of the Virgin: St. Anne reclines in middle ground; maids prepare the infant's bath in foreground; two more attendants stand behind the bed
• Three tightly connected spatial planes parallel to the picture surface
• Parted curtain at far right implies depth and space beyond the main scene
• Stage-like architectural setting with receding diagonals; vertical and horizontal lines create dignity and solemnity
• Figures are full and soft, suggesting volume; Byzantine prototypes given greater 3D quality and human interaction
• Religious patronage in Rome: Cardinal Stefaneschi's renovation project at a Marian basilica
• Cavallini's legacy: largely under appreciated because Vasari credited much of his work to Giotto
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• Cavallini's training in Early Christian frescoes (St. Paul's) gave him a 'late Roman' stylistic vocabulary that he applied to give Byzantine prototypes new vitality
• The intimate domestic scene — a noble yet human birth — signals the shift toward accessible, emotionally resonant religious imagery
• Cavallini is a key bridge figure between Byzantine conventions and the proto-
Jacopo Torriti, Coronation of the Virgin, c. 1294, mosaic. Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome
Object 4: Jacopo Torriti, Coronation of the Virgin (Mosaic, Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, c. 1295)
Visual Description Guide
Study and be able to describe the following visual elements:
• Large apse mosaic; gold and deep blue star-studded orb dominates the composition
• Virgin and Christ seated side by side on a golden throne with scarlet and blue cushions
• Christ raises his right hand to crown the Virgin; angels steady the celestial sphere
• Lush green scrolling vine patterns (rinceaux) with peacocks, cranes, and partridges
• River gods along the base suggest late classical sources reused or replicated from the original 5th-century apse
• Donor figures: Pope Nicholas IV (in scarlet papal tiara) kneels at left; Cardinal Jacopo Colonna kneels at right; St. Francis and St. Anthony of Padua bracket the scene
Major Themes to Address
• Papal patronage and civic identity: Nicholas IV (first Franciscan pope) refashions the basilica to project Franciscan papal authority
• Mary as Queen of Heaven / Ecclesia: the Virgin as co-ruler and the Church as bride of Christ
• Continuity and revival: reuse of classical and Early Christian motifs signals papal legitimacy
• Religious and political power intertwined: placement of patron portraits alongside saints as assertion of authority
Significance & Socio-Cultural Context
• Santa Maria Maggiore was a site of Colonna family power — Nicholas IV's patronage was a strategic political act, not just devotion
• The Virgin's coronation is tied to the Feast of the Assumption and to the idea of the Church (Ecclesia) as capable of granting salvation
• Inclusion of St. Francis and St. Anthony signals Franciscan identity of the commissioning pope
• Classical and Early Christian motifs (rinceaux, river gods) demonstrate the pope's claim to Roman heritage and continuity
Detail of the lid of an ash urn in the form of an old married couple. From Volterra. Late second-early first century BCE. Terracotta. H. 41 cm. Volterra, Museo Etrusco Guarnacci
Object 18: Ash Urn Lid: Old Married Couple (Volterra)
A terracotta ash urn or lid (hollow, with circular holes in each head for ash insertion) depicting an old married couple lying on a couch, found in the Ulimeto necropolis, Volterra (discovered 1743; collected by Mario Guarnacci). The man wears a tunic, mantle, and thick wreath on his receding hairline; he leans on cushions, resting a veined, be-ringed hand on a drinking bowl, gazing into the distance. The woman lies in front of him on her stomach in a contorted position — sleeveless tunic and mantle — her face in profile turned toward him with a grim, bitter expression. Her elegantly waved hair is gathered in a bun. The woman's forearm (missing) was probably raised to caress his cheek.
Significance
Sometimes called 'the portrait of marriage,' this urn is among the most emotionally powerful surviving Etruscan works. The man's apparently individual features (deep furrows, veined hand) are in fact paralleled on other Volterran urns, confirming that even 'realistic' features are generic Hellenistic portrait types with age-indicating additions. The woman's grim expression — in poignant contrast to her loving gesture — has been read as a 'life full of care.' The hollow terracotta construction (ashes could be inserted through the heads) is a uniquely Etruscan solution uniting the ash container with the image of the deceased. The choice of terracotta (rare in Volterra, where alabaster was common) may be a deliberate archaizing gesture.
Broader Themes & Connections
Realistic vs. idealized portraiture in Hellenistic Etruria; the ash urn as surrogate body; marriage as a theme in funerary art (compare Sarcophagus of Ramtha Visnai); terracotta as an archaizing material choice; Northern Etruscan funerary traditions; the Guarnacci Museum and the preservation of Etruscan heritage.
Object 16: Sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa
Themes:
Elite funerary sculpture, idealized vs. real portraiture, terracotta production, women's identity
Visual Description
A terracotta sarcophagus found alone in a small chamber tomb at Poggio Cantarello, Chiusi, dated end of 4th to mid-3rd century BCE. The architectural pedestal box has a frieze of alternating triglyphs and rosettes. The lid (in two parts) shows a mature woman resting on a mattress and pillow, dressed in a sleeveless high-girt chiton and mantle. She holds a circular lidded mirror in her left hand and raises the edge of her mantle in a bridal gesture with her right. Her face has an idealized classicizing beauty (almost straight profile, slightly open lips); her jewelry (tiara, earrings, necklace, bracelets, rings) is restrained. Extensive remains of polychrome paint survive.
Significance
The sarcophagus is a landmark for the study of Etruscan portraiture and the gap between idealized representation and biological reality: skeletal analysis of bones reveals a woman of 50–55 who suffered serious injury (possibly from a horse or cart), resulting in arthritis, spinal curvature, and jaw deformation — none of which appears in the idealized image. The lady's name (cut into the wet clay) belongs to two known Chiusine aristocratic families. The bridal gesture of lifting the mantle, the mirror, and the careful polychrome finish all constitute a specific visual language of elite female Chiusine identity. The terracotta medium reflects regional economic patterns.
Broader Themes & Connections
The gap between idealized funerary portraiture and biological reality; the mirror as a symbol of female identity and status; the bridal gesture in Etruscan art; aristocratic family identity preserved in inscribed names; terracotta versus stone as regional economic choices; Chiusi as a center of sarcophagus production.
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