Kampung Susun Akuarium: A Story of Community Resilience, Participatory Planning, and AdvocacyÂ
On January 4, 2024, the Kampung Susun Akuarium initiative in Jakarta received the esteemed Gold World Habitat Award given by World Habitat in partnership with UN-Habitat. This award acknowledges the strong role of the public participation network in birthing Kampung Susun Akuariumâwhich was once a thriving informal settlement on the north coast of Jakarta before its demolition in 2016. This international recognition highlights the shift in government top-down approaches to urban redevelopment, providing hope for collaborative movement in inclusive planning through planners as advocates and government as co-creators working synergistically. The conventional top-down approach to housing provision in Jakarta has been challenged by a democratic, bottom-up, community-led approach through the development of Kampung Susun Akuarium residential cooperative public housing. In all the previous years, Jakarta's housing policy favored eviction and displacement of informal settlements. As noted by Fauzi and Kosandi (2022, p.270), "At least since the era of Sutiyoso (2002-2007) and Fauzi Bowo (2007-2012), forced evictions have become the government's main policy in managing informal settlements". In the case of Kampung Akuarium in 2015-2016 with Ahok as the governor, the provincial government conducted 305 forced evictions of 10,000 families with the pretext of improving flooding infrastructure, road construction, and protection of green and heritage sites (World Habitat Awards, 2023, p.1). Not in line with the top-down demolition decision, Kampung Akuarium residents did a civil pushback by resisting being evicted from the area through the demolition on April 11th, 2016 (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, p.3).
This paper will explain how Kampung Susun Akuarium represents a paradigm shift in the public housing provision of Jakarta, arguing that this shift is only possible due to the involvement of grassroots advocates, policy entrepreneurs, and, most importantly, heavy political support. The research will explore two key questions:
How do marginal communities successfully influence urban development in their favor?
How does Kampung Susun Akuarium's participatory planning process shift the conventional models in public housing provision?Â
These questions will be addressed through four subcomponents of narratives: 1) Kampung Akuarium: From Early Touristry Designation, to Bribes and Informal Settlements, to Eviction, 2) Political Stakeholder Involvement and Advocacy Planning Process, 3) Implementation of Kampung Susun Akuarium, and 4) Resistance, Networks, and Impacts. This study will describe how the development of Kampung Susun Akuarium in the Baswedan regime as the governor of Jakarta became a turning point for Jakarta's urban housing policy, from evictions to advocacy. In this paper, I argue that politics play a significant role in the shift of organizing informal settlementsâaligning with Davidoffâs (1973) theory of interested parties. I will also integrate Davidoffâs theory on advocacy, the theory of citizen participation by Sherry Arnstein, and the basis of political play in planning by Jade Craig. In supporting the research, this paper used the report conducted by Irawaty and Muhammad about Kampung Susun Akuarium in 2023, Fauzi and Kosandi's case study research in 2022 regarding Kampung Susun Akuarium policy innovation, and World Habitat Awards (2023) report on Kampung Susun Akuarium as a base knowledge.
Kampung Akuarium: From Early Touristry Designation, to Bribes and Informal Settlements, to Eviction.
Kampung Akuarium was initially a parcel of land with one semi-permanent marine research laboratory in 1905 in the Dutch East Indies era that evolved as a touristry aquarium attraction in 1923. After Indonesian independence in 1945, the Jakarta provincial government exchanged land parcels. The government exchanged a land parcel in Ancol with Kampung Akuarium under the Oceanographic Institute's ownership. The research laboratory building remained unused until it was made into a police dormitory in 1970, where bribes happened and yielded informal settlements in the area (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, p.5). Furthermore, the historical context of Kampung Akuariumâcoined from the initial touristry designationâbecame increasingly complex as the 1st generation of settlers became homeowners. As Irawaty and Muhammad presented (2023), these homeowners without formal land titles require new housing tenants to compensate for their act of landfilling and preparing the area for habitation.Â
Adding complexity to the already controversial land ownership status, Irawaty and Muhammad (2023) mentioned that the Kampung Akuarium land plot was never registered under government ownership after the transaction from the Oceanography Instituteâemphasizing an important aspect of neglection by the government that residents pointed out and became the main argument of their stance. This anonymity of Kampung Akuarium land ownership made residents able to argue that the Kampung Akuarium fell under the category of State Land (Tanah Negara) that does not belong to any specific individual or entity and requires a legal process to determine rightful ownership (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, p.5). Irawaty and Muhammad (2023) also noted that there was a misaligned policy transferring the 2012 zoning of Kampung Akuarium from a green zone designated for parks and natural infrastructure to the 2014 zoning of Kampung Akuarium as a red zone reserved for governmental buildings with potential housing under certain circumstances.
Under Governor Ahokâs regime, Jakarta's provincial government tried to redevelop Kampung Akuarium through its agencies. In 2015, the government designated the area for slum clearance, citing the need to improve the riverbank and seawall to prevent floods. To ensure the clearance was fair and just, the government plan was to move the evicted informal settlers to nearby rental public housing. With these pretexts, the government justified its action, providing both the urgency for demolition and the social solution for informal settlers' housing. However, unhappy with the top-down decision to relocate and birthing the need to pay for rental public housing, the residents of Kampung Akuarium fought back in 2016 by resisting being evicted post-demolition.
The eviction threats of demolition occurred between March and April 2016. Four notices commanded residents to vacate the location before the demolition scene took place on April 11. After the forceful demolition, the community got scattered; some moved to public rental units that the government had prepared, some returned to their hometowns, and some pushed back by staying in the demolished Kampung Akuarium. The differences in the latterâs choice were caused by the confusing mixed feeling of betrayal from the governmentâhistorically tangled upon the 2012 political promise by the governor Widodo and Ahok as his vice governor, promising Kampung Akuarium residents a betterment of the area and to let them stay. Through that basis of confusion, residents demand their rights to stay. For the following year, residents chose to stay in the remnants of the demolished area, building another informal temporary huts settlement while suing the government with the help of an NGO network from Urban Poor Consortium (UPC) and Jaringan Rakyat Miskin Kota (JRMK, translated as Urban Poor Network) preventing any development in the area while the case study is being sued. In the one-year time-space that residents exist, political interest arose due to the upcoming election of Jakarta in 2017 (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023).
Political Stakeholder Involvement and Advocacy Planning Process
The 2017 Jakarta election played a huge role in the turning point in the struggle for Kampung Akuarium. Baswedan, Ahok's political opposition opponent, had a more inclusive approach when planning the city: he promised to stop the ongoing forced evictions development program and work on rebuilding the affected communities. This political maneuver was substantial for his electionâgaining support through coaliting with JRMK and signing a political contract promising to recreate Kampung Akuarium in February 2016, months before election day in 2017âleading to Baswedan's electoral victory. Following Baswedan's commitment, the Jakarta Provincial Government, under his leadership, issued the Governor Regulation Number 90 of 2018 concerning the Improvement of Settlement Quality in the Context of Integrated Settlement Area Development through the Community Action Plan (CAP) approach. To address the technical aspect, Baswedan also issued a Governor's Decree No. 878 in the same year, which targeted slum priority areas improvement in 21 kampungs, including Kampung Akuarium. (Fauzi & Kosandi, 2022 p. 270; Irawaty and Muhammad, 2023).
The redevelopment of Kampung Akuarium became a participatory process driven by the residents. Baswedan's administration worked closely to support 1) facilitating on-site reconstruction, 2) construction of temporary housing for the evicted in the development phase of the new plan, 3) restoring identity cards for the evicted, 4) policy intervention through Community Action Plan (CAP) program, Collaborative Implementation Program (CIP), and forming an Agrarian Reform Task Force (GTRA) with the national-level land authority to mediate Jakarta provincial government and the community, 5) formalizing the cooperative scheme for the residential housing, 6) providing tenure agreement and space for negotiation, 7) modified following land use plan (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, pp. 5-6)
The initiation of the participatory process started as early as the demolition took place in 2016. Aligning with Davidoff's (1973) theory of interested parties, the first advocates came from within themselves: the Kampung Akuarium residents. Next, they acquired sympathizers from special interest group associations, one of the earliest being anti-poverty councils. UPC and JRMK, under the anti-poverty council as the second set of interested parties, helped a fundraising campaign for resisting evicted residents to build public toilets, a commercial kitchen, a temporary mosque, and a better temporary shelter and provide activities for children while simultaneously crafting comprehensive proposals (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, p.9). At this point, Kampung Akuarium had a representation through two different types of organizations that advocated for the residents' needs and helped them make proposals for their condition; in the next phase, it got even better. Adding on the way, Baswedan, representing interested political parties by taking the role of politician, acquired this momentum, completing all three advocacy organizations in Davidoff's theory.
The intensification of advocacy in the redevelopment of Kampung Akuarium calls for engagement by stakeholders other than the residents who act as committee advocates themselves. The kampung committee played a vital role in maintaining intense collaboration with the involved actors, which included organizations such as JRMK, UPC, Rujak Center for Urban Studies (RCUS), Jakarta Legal Aid, researchers, journalists, and politicians. Every actor engaged in developing what was then called "Kampung Susun Akuarium," with 'susun' portraying the new vertical schemed affordable housing for the resident. The change of the name presentation from Kampung Akuarium to Kampung Susun Akuarium symbolically emphasizes housing. This change reflected a broader impact, portraying a physical provision of housing in which the birth of Kampung Susun Akuarium as a public housing could only be successful due to advocacy and citizen participationâsomething everybody never thought capable of doing.
Facilitated by Rujak Center for Urban Studies (RCUS) architects, Kampung Susun Akuarium emphasizes an innovative approach in design to compromise the livelihood of typical kampung neighborhoods while adapting to the modern perspective on vertical housing due to its density effectiveness. These community architects helped facilitate weekly workshops from 2017 to 2019 with the residents to ensure comprehensive planning reconstruction proposals that reflect their collective visions while familiarizing residents with zoning regulations and land use plans (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, p.11). This approach aligns with Davidoff's concept of the 'Advocate Planners,' who have the responsibility of educating the city communities on their rights, the general procedures of city government, and the specific programs that are likely to have an impact on the communities (Davidoff, 1973, p. 284).
Through the extensive support of advocacy planning and inclusion of user inputs to the spatial planning vision and physical design of Kampung Akuarium, this citizen participation reaches the "partnership" stage in Arnstein's (1969) "Ladder of Citizen Participation" classification. The policy entrepreneurs described by Fauzi and Kosandi (2022) were central to this process. Policy entrepreneurs were intermediaries in linking political commitment with the technical expertise required for the project's success. According to Fauzi and Kosandi (2022, p. 273), policy entrepreneurs are the critical actors that link the problem stream (urgent need for housing), the policy stream (solutions proposed by planners and architects), and the political stream (Baswedan's administration) to create a window of opportunity for policy innovation.
By the beginning of 2019, the final design proposal was submitted to the Housing Agency, undermining a slow and complex bureaucratic process that would follow. Consequently, some revisions were made to fit non-negotiable building regulations. The architects from RCUS did their best to preserve some fundamental design decisions representing the residentsâ will within the final plan: the wide hallways, mid-rise apartment block typology, and infrastructures that accommodate the kampung lifestyle to preserve communal cohesion among neighbors. As Irawaty and Muhammad (2023) stated, the final layouts for the Kampung Susun Akuarium are of equal size and layout, providing a comfortable living space of 36 m2 or 387.5 square feet and having five towers totaling 240 apartment units.
Implementation of Kampung Susun Akuarium
The implementation of Kampung Susun Akuarium involved three key crucial aspects: financing, housing cooperatives, and land tenure:
Financing the construction of Kampung Susun Akuarium was a unique challenge, and the project's success relied on an innovative funding model. According to Irawaty and Muhammad (2023), as a representation of RCUS and UPC that wrote the report on Kampung Susun Akuarium development, the project was financed through developer fines instead of relying solely on government budgets. In Jakarta, commercial developers who build a 5,000 m2 (1.2 acres) project are obliged to secure a permit. One of the obligations is to either cede a portion of the land to the government for public benefits or to pay developer fines. The government uses this creative financing approach to build Kampung Susun Akuarium.Â
In the development, PT. Almaron invested 62 billion rupiahs (approximately USD 4 million, with the currency rate of 1 USD equals 14,500 IDR during the construction period) to build Towers B and D; While Greenwood, Pondok Indah Land, and Trimitraland invested in Towers A, C, and E (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, pp. 7-8). Irawaty and Muhammad (2023) mentioned that the total cost of housing and infrastructure development for Kampung Susun Akuarium is estimated to be approximately USD 10 million (148 billion rupiahs). This agreement enabled the project to be developed without delays typically associated with development by public funding.Â
Kampung Akuariumâs success is also rooted in its advocacy from organizations. The World Habitat Awards (2023) mentioned that there is other specific funding outside of the infrastructure financing for building Kampung Susun Akuarium, such as funding RCUS advocacy for housing rights and the funding to cover the workshops. RCUS received support for their technical expertise and architectural services for a total of 3,570,660,000 IDR (USD 240,000) from various international organizations such as the Ford Foundation, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, and SELAVIP (World Habitat Awards, 2023, p.5). The World Habitat Awards (2023) also showcase that 163,606,661 IDR (USD 10,994) additional community capacity strengthening funds were received from Kyoto University, Toyota Foundation, and the Japan Foundation.
2. Housing Cooperative Scheme
One of the most innovative aspects of Kampung Susun Akuarium can be seen in its housing cooperative model. Following the eviction and subsequent mobilization efforts, the residents of Kampung Akuarium formed the Kampung Akuarium Cooperative in 2018 to manage and operate their new housing complex. The Akuarium cooperative comprised 103 members out of the total 240 households within the Kampung Susun and was among Jakartaâs pioneering kampungs to create a housing cooperative (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, pp. 9-10). The Akuarium Cooperative works as an essential legal entity to facilitate negotiation and organization within the community.
Before Governor Baswedan's term ended in 2022, the Kampung Akuarium Cooperative raised concerns about their lack of legal land and building rights at Kampung Susun Akuarium. Irawaty and Muhammad (2023, p.6-7) mentioned that the Jakarta provincial government hesitated to transfer land ownership due to bureaucratic challenges, as the city could only fund projects on government-owned land. The land transfer would have hindered ongoing development if ownership had been relinquished. To resolve this, the GTRA and a special team recommended that the Jakarta government grant the cooperative land use (zoning) rights while retaining land ownership. The Jakarta provincial government also agreed to grant building rights to the Kampung Susun Akuarium Cooperative.
The zoning change and the building rights transfer were written in Governor Regulation No. 31/2022. For a successful transfer, the government mandates the cooperatives to meet several conditions in the âtransition periodâ from 2022 to 2027 (World Habitat Awards, 2023, p.12). Irawaty and Muhammad (2023, p.6-7) mentioned that during the transition period, the cooperative should lease the buildings at a symbolic rate of 34,000 rupiahs (roughly US$ 2.50) per unit per month, totaling 2 million rupiahs (US$ 140) per family over the course of five years, and is responsible for maintenance. The cooperative is also mandated to establish a sinking fund worth 1 billion rupiahs (US$67,000), serving as collateral during large-scale repairs and renovations, including structural damage or damage to buildings, aside from demonstrating the technical capability of carrying out repairs. If these conditions are met, they can request full ownership transfer from the Provincial Government of DKI Jakarta to the the Akuarium cooperative after the transition period ends. After the transition, the cooperative will finalize individual agreements with families to formalize their apartment usage rights.
Resistance, Networks, and Impacts
This paper illustrates how marginalized communities can actively shape the urban environment by refusing to be sidelined in the development process. Among the main strategies employed by the residents is staying on-site in both the eviction and construction phases (Irawaty & Muhammad, 2023, p.11). Such solidarity showed their stance to the public eyesâmaking their presence visible and ensuring their voices remained central to the planning process. By refusing to be evicted, the people in Kampung Akuarium emphasize their right to the city, proving that proper urban development must include them rather than displace them.
However, the birth of Kampung Susun Akuarium is not only due to residents' resistance but also mainly owing to the controversial historical context of this informal settlement, as shown through paying bribes to the (police) officials to build an informal dwelling to the point that this area becomes a magnetical part for gubernatorial candidates to seek voters. Adding to that, the ambiguity of the zoning ordinances gives way for these people to fight back under the premise of government obscurity in planning. By unraveling the Kampung Akuarium area's history and acknowledging different political approaches to the former governor's regime, the best thing to do for the later-elected governor, Baswedan, was to be pragmatic.
Solving major urban problems needs the voice of the highest executive in the cityâthe governor. Anies Baswedan, as progressive as he is, carried out a small amount of pragmatist thinking in his approach to solving the problem at Kampung Akuarium. The way in which Baswedan signed an agreement with the JRMK on the round of the campaign period is a sign of practical thinking. Here, we can see how Kampung Akuarium became another political arena for the second time.
However, this new political play is good for the confused residents. While they have forged a connection with the NGOs, drawing additional interested parties would bring benefitsâmoreover, when it is political. There are two solid reasons for this base of argument. First, ideally, political parties tend to strongly desire active participation in planning (Davidoff, 1973, p. 289). The active participation would gather more people in the way that these people, if 'invested' correctly, would serve as grassroots supportersâa growth machine for the politicians. Second, this bargaining is being done with a gubernatorial candidate; if he got elected, the policy made by a ruling governor would direct the regime, effectively deploying governmental resources towards the new government vision. As Davidoff (1973 p. 290) stated, "the public planning function should be carried out in the executive or legislative office and perhaps in both," which means that planning is essential to be directly tied to elected officials.Â
However, the successful case of Kampung Susun Akuarium is not only due to political involvement but also the active participation of various third-party organizations in the planning process. The marginalized successfully repurposed how these organizations could benefit them to the extensive maximum. Fauzi & Kosandi (2022) identified these third-party advocates work as 'policy entrepreneurs'. Policy entrepreneurs are "advocates of innovative policy ideas" (King and Robert in Fauzi & Kosandi, 2022, p. 271). As Fauzi and Kosandi describe, the concept of policy entrepreneurs exists within the framework of the flow of problems (problems stream), politics (political stream), and the flow of policy (policy stream).Â
The presence of policy entrepreneurs influences government agenda-setting. In the regard of Kampung Susun Akuarium, the critical actors that link the problem stream (urgent need for housing) are UPC, JRMK, and Residents; the policy stream that represents solutions is RCUS which proposed new planning as planners and architects; and the political stream is the 2017 elected governor, Anies Baswedan and his team, providing new social justice insight in planning (Fauzi & Kosandi, 2022, p.273). In having this proactive approach, each party involved understood their role as planning advocates. These various organization recognized their responsibility as public actors. As Craig (2022, p. 89) states, "Public actors also have a role to play in using their power to advance social justice."Â
Their perspective on an inclusive environment in the urban sphere made Kampung Susun Akuarium residential cooperative public housing possible. Kampung Akuarium Cooperative, since the October 2022 agreement, has been formalized as the one responsible for managing the kampung susun. This legal responsibility bestowed upon the resident committee from the regional government is essential. The decentralization of power shows the shift of democracy; it notions the government's acknowledgment of residents' and citizens' capability to self-regulationâtherefore gaining the highest level of participation in Arnstein's "Ladder of Citizen Participation."
Figure 1. Arnstein's (1969) Ladder of Citizen Participation
The citizen power degree in rebuilding Kampung Akuarium and subsequently developing the cooperative housing model of Kampung Susun Akuarium could be considered on the level of 'citizen control' in Arnstein's (1969) "Ladder of Citizen Participation." This recognition is due to residents' active participation in proposing a new redevelopment plan until they negotiate for the building ownership status, which creates the cooperative housing scheme. The space to participate given by the government and the dominancy of the residents birth this dynamic relationship in which citizens could take immense controlâthus more significant responsibilityâfor their place.
Residents in the Kampung Susun Akuarium have full authority and autonomy for the building management and operation through the Kampung Akuarium Cooperative. Since the redevelopment of Kampung Akuarium, residents have not been just recipients of housing solutions; instead, they work alongside other actors as active participants. Their involvement in the process shaped how the project was developed and managed. Having the autonomy to self-regulate creates a sense of ownership and responsibilityâwhich was central to the project's success, as recognized by the World Habitat Awards.
Kampung Susun Akuarium, with its global recognition, would now have the capacity to spark a new level in the discourse of equity in planning in Jakarta. This model challenges the conventional way of urban redevelopment and housing provision. It is a successful case of citizen participatory and grassroots resistance towards top-down planning in the social sphere. Through this logic, I argue that Kampung Susun Akuarium's participatory planning model would impact future government regime planning implementation.
The resistance and advocacy of the Kampung Akuarium community did more than stop an eviction. It led to the creation of a new, innovative housing model that has shifted how public housing is developed in Jakartaâthrough cooperative housing management. This cooperative approach empowers marginalized groups by offering control over their homes.
This innovation of public housing cooperatives could only happen through the collaboration of various interested parties, which also, owing to the shift of government approach in planning, translated into the regime's specific vision and mission. Interested political parties, such as the governor or another executive role, play a big part in directing decisions. Through their power and access to legislative acts, policies are formed and moved further in priority and execution.
Achieving the highest citizen participation would require decentralization of power from the upper-up. However, in the instance of no distribution of power, there are ways in which the marginalized could resist and persistâthrough networking. Allying with advocates with the same vision would have more influence. The power of an undemocratic, authoritarian system of governance could be challenged by a solidarity, community-based approach to networkingâthat is, by grassroots movement.
Arnstein, S.R. (1969). A Ladder of Citizen Participation. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35, 216â224.
Craig, J. A. (2022). âPigs in The Parlorâ: The Legacy of Racial Zoning and The Challenge of Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing in The South. https://core.ac.uk/download/543572599.pdf
Davidoff, P. (1973). âAdvocacy and pluralism in planning,â A Reader in Planning Theory, pp. 277â296. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-017066-4.50024-2.Â
Irawaty, D. and Muhammad, G. (2023). Case Studies of Collective Housing in Asian Cities Series: August 2023. Asian Coalition for Housing Rights. Available at: http://www.achr.net/upload/downloads/file_230824171816.pdf.
Fauzi, A., & Kosandi, M. (2022). Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Innovation: The Case Of Kampung Akuarium In Jakarta. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Social and Political Sciences (IcoSaPS, 2022), 270â274. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-494069-77-0_37
World Habitat Awards. (2023). Housing Rights in Jakarta: Collective Action and Policy Advocacy, Indonesia. https://world-habitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Housing-Rights-in-Jakarta-Collective-Action-and-Policy-Advocacy-Indonesia.pdf
* Writing approach and supports:Â Grammarly, Google Translate, Ms. Word thesaurus. I used Grammarly, as I was recommended in another class.