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The Third Form of Divorce in the Ottoman Empire

The Most Serious Type of Divorce

In this passage, the author describes what he considers the third and most serious form of divorce in Ottoman Islamic law. He calls it “Üç Talak” (Triple Talaq), meaning that the husband has pronounced divorce three times. According to Islamic law as understood by the author, this type of divorce completely ended the marriage and made it impossible for the couple to reunite immediately Customized Tours Balkan.

The writer explains that if the husband later regretted his decision, he could not simply take his former wife back. The marriage had ended completely, and certain legal conditions had to be fulfilled before they could marry again. This rule was intended to discourage men from divorcing their wives carelessly or in moments of anger.

A Barrier Against Careless Divorce

According to the author, the law imposed a strict condition before a divorced couple could remarry. The woman first had to marry another man in a genuine marriage. Only if that second marriage ended naturally through death or divorce could she legally marry her first husband again.

The author explains that this rule was intended as a punishment for a husband who had acted hastily. By making reconciliation difficult, the law encouraged men to think carefully before ending a marriage. Divorce was legally permitted, but it was not meant to be treated lightly.

Modern Islamic scholars explain that this regulation was designed to protect women from husbands who repeatedly divorced and reclaimed them, leaving them in a state of uncertainty. The purpose of the rule was to bring stability to marriage rather than to encourage temporary marriages.

The Author’s Interpretation

The author believes that this law shows an interesting balance within Ottoman society. On the one hand, he says that Islamic law allowed men considerable freedom in matters of marriage and divorce. On the other hand, he argues that it also imposed serious consequences on those who used divorce irresponsibly.

Although the writer describes the rule as a form of public disgrace for the husband, modern historians note that the primary purpose was legal rather than humiliating. Islamic law sought to make the husband understand the seriousness of permanently ending a marriage and to prevent impulsive decisions.

A Popular Story

The author includes a humorous story that was apparently well known during his time. He tells of a man who regretted divorcing his wife and wanted to marry her again. Since the law required her to marry another man first, he decided to choose the first stranger he happened to meet, hoping that the matter would quickly be settled.

The first person he encountered was said to be a boatman. According to the story, the woman became so happy in her new marriage that she decided not to return to her first husband. She believed her second husband was kinder and more suitable than the first and chose to remain with him.

Whether this story is true or not is impossible to know. It was most likely repeated as a popular anecdote to illustrate the author’s discussion of divorce law.

How Common Was This?

The author concludes by saying that very few Ottoman men were willing to accept these legal conditions after pronouncing a final divorce. Most accepted that the marriage had ended permanently rather than attempting to remarry their former wives.

He also explains that the expression “Üç Talak” became a common saying among the Turks. People sometimes used it to describe anything that had been completely separated or permanently broken. In everyday language, it came to symbolize something that could not easily be restored.

A Historical Perspective

This passage reflects the understanding of a seventeenth-century European traveler and should be read alongside modern historical scholarship. The author correctly identifies the importance of Triple Talaq in Islamic law, but he simplifies some of its legal details. Modern scholars emphasize that the second marriage required before a couple could remarry had to be a genuine marriage entered into freely, not one arranged simply to satisfy the legal requirement. Deliberately organizing a temporary marriage for this purpose was generally condemned by Islamic jurists.

Today, historians view this law as an attempt to balance the husband’s legal right to divorce with protections that discouraged impulsive decisions and provided greater security for women. Like many early travel accounts, this passage combines accurate observations with stories and personal interpretations, making it both a valuable historical source and a reflection of the author’s own cultural perspective.

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The Dervish Monasteries and Their Travels

Monasteries Across the Ottoman Empire

The dervishes maintained monasteries and religious houses in many of the most important cities and regions of the Ottoman Empire. These monasteries served not only as places of worship and spiritual retreat, but also as inns and resting places for traveling members of their order.

Whenever dervishes journeyed from one place to another, they could stay in these convents and receive food, shelter, and hospitality. In this way, the monasteries formed a large network spread across the empire and beyond Istanbul Day Tour.

The dervishes depended greatly on charity, donations, and the support of these religious houses during their travels.

Their Constant Travels

Among all the religious groups in the Ottoman world, the dervishes were especially known for their constant movement and long journeys. They traveled widely through lands where Islam was practiced, claiming that their purpose was to preach religion and strengthen the faith of believers.

Their travels took them far beyond the Ottoman Empire into Persia, China, and the territories of the Mughal Empire in India. Because they moved freely across borders and between different regions, they became very knowledgeable about politics, trade, local customs, and military affairs.

For this reason, many people believed that the dervishes acted as excellent spies and informants. Their ability to travel unnoticed and gather information made them valuable sources of intelligence throughout the eastern world.

A Famous Monastery in Adrianople

The author recalls seeing the ruins of one of these monasteries in Adrianople, known today as Edirne. The convent had once stood on a beautiful hill with clean air and a magnificent view overlooking the entire city and the surrounding plains.

The location had been admired for its beauty and peaceful atmosphere. However, by the time the author saw it, the monastery had already been destroyed.

When he asked about the reason for its destruction, he learned that it had been demolished by order of the famous Ottoman grand vizier Köprülü.

Scandal and Destruction

According to the story, the monastery had become a meeting place for immoral behavior and public scandal. Instead of serving as a center of devotion and spirituality, it was accused of becoming a gathering place for dishonest women and young men seeking forbidden pleasures.

The author claims that wealthy Turkish husbands allowed their wives to visit the monastery freely because they respected the holiness and reputation of the dervishes. The convent was believed to be a sacred and trustworthy place.

However, it was later discovered that some people used this trust dishonorably. Secret meetings and improper relationships were said to take place there, and the scandal became widely known throughout the city.

Because the situation became too public and disgraceful, the grand vizier ordered the complete destruction of the monastery. The entire foundation of the building was torn down so that no trace of it remained.

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Modern Sects Among the Turks

Throughout history, Islam has seen the rise of many sects, especially among the Turks. Each teacher or scholar often creates a unique set of ideas, sometimes based on personal interpretations of religious texts. These groups are called sects, and their diversity reflects the wide range of thought in Islamic society.

Minor Sects and Their Influence

We will not focus on the many minor sects, as they are too numerous to list. Almost every teacher who studies a few Arabian texts may consider himself important if he creates a slightly different opinion from others. These individuals often teach their own ideas to disciples, distinguishing their school from ordinary ones Customized Guided Tour.

Even though their opinions vary, these teachers usually avoid contradicting the five essential points of practice and one point of faith mentioned in earlier chapters. They also make sure their teachings do not challenge the authority of rulers or cause disturbances in society. In this way, these minor sects generally remain harmless, despite their differences.

Dangerous Modern Sects

However, modern times have seen the emergence of some sects that could be more dangerous to social unity. Changes in political power or state revolutions might allow certain leaders to gather soldiers and followers around these doctrines, potentially causing unrest.

One such group is called the Kadezadeli sect, which appeared during the time of Sultan… (the text does not specify). This sect is notable for its strict religious views and efforts to enforce its interpretation of Islamic law more rigidly than other groups. Such movements sometimes create tension because they challenge existing customs and authorities while claiming to return to a purer form of religion.

In summary, while minor sects among the Turks are mostly harmless, modern and stricter sects like the Kadezadeli have the potential to influence politics and society. Understanding these groups is important for appreciating the diversity of thought in Turkish Islamic history and the ways religion and state authority interact.

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Endowments and Wealth of Turkish Mosques

In summary, the wealth and support of Turkish mosques come from a combination of donations, lands, rents, and charitable gifts. Royal mosques receive large endowments from sultans and royal families, while smaller mosques depend on private gifts, bequests, and income from lands or properties. These revenues are carefully managed to support religious scholars, students, and charitable activities such as feeding the poor, caring for travelers, and maintaining hospitals.

The system is designed so that mosques are not only centers of worship but also centers of learning, social support, and community life. By observing the management of royal mosques, it is possible to understand how other mosques and religious institutions in the empire operate.

The Doctrine of Predestination According to Turkish Scholars

Turkish religious scholars, or doctors of the law, hold a strict view of predestination. Their doctrine resembles, in some ways, the beliefs of certain Calvinist thinkers in Europe. They interpret passages of scripture to support the idea that God determines the fate of every individual. For example, they cite phrases such as “the Lord said to the Potter, ‘What are you making?’ I will harden the heart of Pharaoh” and “Jacob I have loved, but Esau I have hated.” These texts are used to argue that God’s will is decisive in all matters of life Private Tour Ephesus.

The Turks do not give the same final authority to the Old Testament. Instead, they believe that the Qur’an, being more recent, expresses the will of God more clearly and perfectly. For this reason, the teachings of the Qur’an replace the laws of the older scriptures in guiding their faith and practice.

Some scholars go further, claiming that God is the ultimate author of both good and evil. They argue that all events, whether fortunate or harmful, occur according to divine will. This strict view of predestination helps explain why they interpret historical events, including wars and victories, as signs of God’s favor. For example, they saw the outcomes of Sultan Bayezid’s conflicts with his brother Selim as evidence of divine will and guidance.

Conquests and Divine Approval

Turkish scholars also use the empire’s successes as a measure of divine approval. Victories in war, territorial expansion, and prosperity are seen as evidence that God supports their religion and rulers. By observing the outcomes of political and military events, they interpret God’s favor and guidance for both the sultan and the faith as a whole.

In this way, the doctrine of predestination reinforces both religious devotion and loyalty to the state. It connects divine will directly with worldly events, encouraging the belief that the empire’s prosperity reflects the correctness of their religion and the justice of their rulers. This view shaped both the spiritual and political understanding of the Ottoman elite, linking faith and governance in a single system of divine and temporal authority.

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Muhammad’s Mission and Divine Commission

Muhammad was sent by God to teach mankind and to declare God’s message clearly and truthfully. His purpose was to make the cause of Christianity known and respected in all parts of the world, both in the East and the West. He wanted people everywhere—near and far, familiar and unknown—to understand God’s will and live according to His law.

A Covenant for Justice and Peace

To achieve this, Muhammad left a written agreement for all people to see. This agreement was meant as an unbreakable covenant and a final decision on disputes. It was a law that declared justice and required strict obedience. The writing made clear that anyone who ignored it, even a Muslim, and acted like an infidel by breaking its rules, would be considered in violation of God’s law. By doing so, the person would break God’s compact, oppose His agreement, and disrespect the testament. This rule applied to all, whether kings, rulers, or ordinary followers of the faith.

Obligations of the Covenant

The agreement Muhammad created bound himself and all his followers to act faithfully and honorably toward Christians. It was a formal covenant between Muslims and Christians, promising protection and fair treatment. By entering into this covenant, Muhammad committed to respect Christian communities, their churches, and their right to practice their religion freely Private Istanbul Tour.

Purpose of the Covenant

The covenant was more than a simple promise—it was a divine and moral obligation. It aimed to maintain peace, prevent conflicts, and ensure justice for Christians under Muslim rule. The covenant also served as a clear example for future generations of Muslims, showing that respecting other religions and keeping agreements was an essential part of faith.

In short, Muhammad’s covenant was intended to protect Christians, promote justice, and maintain peace. It made Muslims accountable for their actions and emphasized obedience to God’s law. The agreement symbolized God’s command for fairness and the proper conduct of His followers, ensuring that Christians and Muslims could coexist under a system of divine guidance and moral responsibility.

This shows that early Islam, at least in principle, valued tolerance, respect for treaties, and careful treatment of people of other faiths.

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The French Ambassador in the Ottoman Court

The French ambassador, Sieur la Haye, faced harsh and unusual treatment while serving in the Ottoman Empire. He represented the French King at the court of the Grand Vizier Kuperli when the Ottoman court was in Adrianople. At that time, a treaty was being negotiated between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice, with the French ambassador acting as mediator.

Interception of Secret Letters

During the negotiations, some letters written in code by the French ambassador were intercepted by the Ottomans. The letters contained sensitive information, and it was clear that they could harm the state if exposed. The Ottomans suspected, correctly, that an Italian had been involved in sending the letters. After examining the letters and questioning the messenger, they confirmed that the French secretary had delivered the cypher to him Bulgaria Private Tours.

Summons to Court

Once the interception was discovered, the ambassador stationed in Constantinople was urgently summoned to appear at the Ottoman court. The authorities wanted an explanation and possibly punishment for the delivery of sensitive documents. However, the ambassador was elderly and in poor health, suffering from gout and kidney stones. Because of these conditions, he could not make the long and difficult winter journey to Adrianople.

Sending a Proxy

To manage the situation, the ambassador sent his son as his procurator, or representative, to the court. He provided detailed instructions on how to answer any questions or objections that might arise. This allowed him to explain his position and defend his actions without personally undertaking the physically demanding journey.

This incident demonstrates both the strict control of the Ottoman court over foreign diplomats and the challenges faced by ambassadors in sensitive negotiations. Even experienced and respected representatives were vulnerable to scrutiny and sudden summons. Health, age, and careful planning all played a role in how ambassadors managed these crises, showing the combination of ceremony, risk, and diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire.

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Who Could Join the Republic

In this system, only certain men were allowed to become members of the republic. They were either men who had been born Christians and later converted to Islam, or men who came from other parts of the Turkish dominions. Local-born sons of Turks were often excluded from high office. The rulers believed that this rule would keep the government strong and united.

By preventing family succession in office, the Turkish leaders tried to protect the absolute power of their great Sultan. They were very careful about allowing power to pass from father to son. They feared that inherited positions might weaken the authority of the throne. For this reason, they avoided giving long-term control to any single family Customized Turkey Tours.

The Principles of Turkish Policy

The political system of the Ottoman Empire, often called the “Turkish policy,” was built on strict control. One important rule was the frequent exchange of officers. This meant that one man was raised to a high position, while another was removed or lowered in rank. This practice was common and was believed to be healthy for the state.

The rulers thought that changing officers often would prevent them from becoming too powerful. If a man stayed too long in one office, he might build strong personal connections, gather wealth, or gain influence over soldiers and people. This could become a threat to the Sultan’s authority.

The Rise and Fall of Great Men

Anyone who carefully watched the Ottoman court would see many sudden changes in fortune. A man who was poor and unknown one day could quickly rise to wealth and honor through the Sultan’s favor. He might receive high office, riches, and respect.

However, this success could end just as quickly. The same man, once highly honored, might lose his position overnight. He could be removed from office, sent into exile, or even executed. His fall could be as sudden as his rise.

This constant change made life at court uncertain. It was like watching a play, where scenes open and close very quickly. Great men appeared like bright stars in the sky, shining for a short time, and then disappearing.

The Reason for Constant Change

The main reason for these frequent changes was to protect the Sultan’s absolute power. By raising one officer and lowering another, the Sultan reminded everyone that all honor and authority came from him alone.

No officer could feel secure in his position. Each man depended entirely on the Sultan’s favor. This rule helped keep the empire under strong control and prevented the growth of rival powers within the state.

In this way, the Ottoman system valued loyalty over family ties and constant change over stability in office.

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Qualifications for a Judicial Career

A career in the judiciary is open to all Bulgarian citizens who meet specific requirements. Candidates must:

Be at least twenty-six years old.

Have completed a full course of legal education.

Successfully pass a State examination.

Serve at least six months as candidates attached to a Departmental Court.

In addition, the candidate must:

Be proficient in the official language of the Principality.

Enjoy full civil and political rights.

Have no criminal charges that carry the penalty of hard labour.

These requirements ensure that only qualified and responsible individuals enter the judicial profession.

Promotion and Appointment

Judges may be promoted to higher positions periodically. Promotion is based on:

The number of years served in their current position.

Favorable reports from the superior court.

Judges, public prosecutors, and Justices of Peace are appointed by royal decree on the advice of the Minister of Justice. Candidates are usually chosen from a list of three names recommended by the respective courts. However, the Minister of Justice is not obliged to select from this list and may propose other candidates, as long as they meet the necessary qualifications Istanbul Tours.

Restrictions on Judicial Activities

To ensure impartiality, judges may not hold other positions at the same time. They cannot be:

Members of Parliament or deputies,

Barristers or civil servants,

Professors or teachers,

Merchants or company directors,

Editors of political newspapers, or members of political parties,

Concessionaires or State contractors.

These rules prevent conflicts of interest and protect the independence of the judiciary.

Permanency of Judges

The principle of permanency applies to judges who have:

Specialized legal education.

Served at least fifteen years as judges or examining magistrates.

Permanent judges cannot be retired or transferred without their consent, except in cases of disciplinary action. They cannot be moved to a higher post without written approval. However, officers of the Public Prosecution Department are not permanent, and their positions are more flexible.

These rules create a professional, independent, and stable judiciary in Bulgaria. By setting clear qualifications, restricting outside activities, and granting permanency to experienced judges, the Principality ensures that justice is fair, impartial, and consistent throughout the country.

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Challenges During the Transitional Period

After the liberation of Bulgaria, the country entered a transitional period in which old Ottoman structures were replaced by modern European institutions. The Russians, who were in charge of establishing the new government, faced enormous difficulties in carrying out their task.

The main challenge was the ongoing state of war. Russian troops were still fighting to push the Ottoman army southwards, and the local population was often unsettled by the violence and uncertainty. The abolition of the former administration could not happen everywhere at the same time; it had to follow the progress of the Russian army, which advanced slowly and at great cost.

At first, the work of creating a new administration was like a “Tower of Babel.” Officials struggled to coordinate the various parts of the system, which were built from different, incompatible materials. The machinery of government was clumsy and inefficient, and only the efforts of highly skilled administrators kept it running Istanbul Tour Guide.

Preparation of the New Constitution

In addition to managing daily administration, the provisional government had the task of preparing a new constitution for Bulgaria. This task was assigned to the Russian professor Gradovsky, who was assisted by General Domontovitz.

The resulting document, written in Russian and titled the “Organic Statute,” was submitted to the Constituent Assembly at Tărnovo on February 10–22, 1879 by the Commissary-General, Dondoukoff-Korsakoff.

Sources and Influences

Very little is known about the specific sources used by Professor Gradovsky. However, it is clear that he was guided in part by the Treaty of Berlin, which had already defined the basic structure of Bulgaria’s government.

In addition, Gradovsky was strongly influenced by the Serbian and Belgian constitutions, which were examples of modern European governance at the time. He also drew inspiration from Russian communal institutions, particularly in giving autonomy to local communes. This allowed local communities to manage their own affairs within the broader framework of the new Principality.

The transitional period in Bulgaria was marked by chaos, war, and administrative challenges. Despite these difficulties, the Russians laid the foundations for a modern civil government. The preparation of the Organic Statute combined international guidance with local traditions and set the stage for Bulgaria’s first independent constitutional government.

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Forests and Vegetation

Forests of the Plains and Mountains

The plains of Bulgaria are mostly covered with oak forests (Quercus species). These oaks grow widely and are the most common trees in the lower areas. Above 500 metres, the beech tree (Fagus sylvatica) becomes the dominant species and is the most important tree of the Bulgarian mountains.

In the middle mountain zones, oaks and beeches grow together. Oaks cover the lower slopes, while beeches dominate the upper slopes. Evergreen oaks are found above 1,000 metres. Other trees mixed with oak and beech include hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), elm (Alnus glutinosa), and plane trees (Acer pseudoplatanus) Turkey Sightseeing.

Above the beech forests, particularly in the Rhodopes and Rilo mountains, conifer forests are common. These include fir trees (Abies pectinate, Picea excelsa), pines (Pinus silvestris, Pinus laricio), and juniper (Juniperus nana). In some areas, the beech has replaced the conifers, making them rare in the Stara-Planina and Ossogovo mountains.

On the hills and lower slopes, forests are replaced by shrubs, brambles, and thorns. Among these, lilac groves (Syringa vulgaris) are especially characteristic. The north ridge of the Rhodopes provides a clear example of the vertical distribution of trees:

Oaks grow up to 700 metres

Beech trees up to 1,300 metres, mixed with conifers above 1,100 metres

The highest tree-covered region reaches 1,900 metres

Southern Bulgaria and Agriculture

Southern Bulgaria, sheltered from cold north winds by the Stara-Planina, is rich in southern plants. The main crops grown are wheat, maize, and barley. Other crops include rye, oats, millet, and spelt, while buckwheat is rare. Rice is common in the Maritza valley, and potatoes are being introduced in less fertile areas.

Fruit cultivation is important. Grapes grow well up to 500 metres, while mulberry trees thrive in lower zones. This combination of forests and fertile plains makes Bulgaria rich in natural resources and agricultural potential, supporting both mountain and lowland communities.

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The Wall of Leo the Armenian

The Threat from the Bulgarians

In the year 813, the Byzantine emperor Leo the Armenian ordered the construction of a new wall to strengthen the northern defenses of Constantinople. The need for this wall came from the threat of the Bulgarian ruler Crum, who was preparing for a second attack on the capital.

Crum had already tried once to capture the city but failed. After his first defeat, he swore revenge. He also wanted to punish the Byzantines because of a treacherous assassination attempt made against him during peace talks with Emperor Leo Private Tours Bulgaria Varna.

The Failed Assassination Plot

A meeting was arranged between the two leaders near the Heraclian Wall, on the clear condition that both sides would appear unarmed. This was necessary because there was little trust between them. However, Leo secretly placed three archers in hiding, instructing them to shoot Crum on his signal.

When Crum arrived, he quickly noticed signs of danger. Just as he dismounted his horse, he grew suspicious. Leaping back into his saddle, he galloped away toward his army camp. The hidden bowmen released their arrows, and although one wounded Crum, he escaped with his life.

Byzantine historians later described the failure of this plot as God’s punishment for the sins of the empire. Crum, on the other hand, saw it as treachery and vowed to destroy Constantinople. He returned to Bulgaria to prepare for a massive new war, but he died before his plan could be carried out.

Building the Wall of Leo

Knowing that Crum might return, Leo immediately improved the city’s defenses. He built a new wall and moat in front of the older Wall of Heraclius. This additional barrier became known as the Wall of Leo the Armenian.

The wall stood about 77 feet west of the Wall of Heraclius and ran parallel to it for 260 feet before turning toward the Golden Horn. Its design was lighter than other city walls, measuring only about 8 feet thick. To give it strength, the wall’s parapet-walk was supported by arches, which also helped buttress the structure.

Towers and Gateways

To increase its defensive power, the wall was reinforced with four small towers. Two were placed on the side facing the Golden Horn, while the other two stood at the ends of the wall section that faced the countryside. Interestingly, the two western towers projected inward from the wall’s rear side, creating space for a gateway between them. This entrance matched the position of the Gate of Blachernae in the Wall of Heraclius, ensuring passage between the two defensive lines.

Importance of the Wall

Although not as massive as the famous Theodosian Walls, the Wall of Leo the Armenian was an important part of Constantinople’s layered defenses. It symbolized the empire’s determination to withstand foreign attacks, especially during a period when the Byzantines were under constant pressure from Bulgarians and other enemies.

By building this wall, Leo not only strengthened the city but also ensured that the sacred Blachernae quarter, home to the famous church of the Virgin, remained securely protected.

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Cattle Industry A Key Economic Sector

After farming, the cattle industry is the second most important economic activity in Bosnia. On average, each person in the country is matched by one steer (bullock), one goat, one pig, and three sheep. This shows how central animal farming is to everyday life. The animal hides—mainly from cattle—are tanned locally (processed into leather) and then exported to countries like Great Britain, France, and Austria. These Bosnian hides are known for their high quality and sell at excellent prices in international markets.

Fruit Production The Value of Dried Prunes

Another important export is dried prunes, which have become a valuable industry. In 1901 alone, prunes worth over $1,500,000 were exported from Bosnia. This trade provides much-needed income for many rural families and contributes to the country’s growing economy.

New Industries Sugar and Silk

The government has recently started producing beet sugar, and efforts are underway to develop silk farming (sericulture). The climate and landscape in Bosnia are particularly suitable for raising silkworms, and experts from Italy have been invited to train local people in this field. These experts teach farmers how to care for silkworms and grow mulberry trees, which are essential for silk production.

Government Support for Agriculture

The Bosnian government has taken active steps to support farmers and rural workers. It has:

Opened agricultural schools where boys can learn modern farming techniques.

Established training centers where girls can learn how to make butter and cheese, care for silkworms, and raise chickens and other farm animals Sofia Guided Tours.

Distributed seeds and farming tools to help farmers test and adopt new crops and methods.

Introduced new ideas in agricultural development.

These improvements are aimed at increasing farm productivity and boosting family incomes in rural areas.

Improving Livestock and Poultry Farming

To improve animal breeding, the government has established special farms and stud stations to raise better-quality horses, cattle, and sheep. Every year, livestock exhibitions are held in provincial capitals. Cash prizes are awarded to the best animals to encourage farmers to participate and improve their practices.

Poultry farming has also received great attention. The government operates at least twelve poultry farms that raise both game birds and domestic fowl. They distribute high-quality eggs from chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys to farmers free of charge—as long as the farmers follow the official instructions on how to hatch and raise the birds.

This strategy has been a major success. Today, poultry is abundant throughout Bosnia. A chicken costs only 10 to 15 cents in local markets, and a goose or turkey can be bought for just 25 cents. In fact, turkeys are so common that they could almost be called the national bird of Bosnia!

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Bulgaria’s Sudden Change to Independence

Bulgaria was suddenly transformed into an independent country without any preparation or experience. The government was mostly controlled by foreigners, who not only jealous of each other but also hostile towards one another. This created a difficult and unstable political situation for the new nation.

The Challenges Faced by Prince Alexander

Prince Alexander faced many difficulties during his reign. People said that he lacked good judgment and discretion. They believed he talked too much, argued with his advisers, and didn’t understand politics well. As a result, he was not seen as a skilled diplomat or leader. He was also considered too lenient and too liberal to govern a country that had always been ruled by a despot (a cruel and absolute ruler).

These criticisms may be true to some extent. If Alexander had had an experienced and wise advisor, his reign might have been more successful. However, despite his weaknesses, Bulgaria made extraordinary progress under his rule. If he had been allowed to stay on the throne, the country might have advanced significantly by now.

Bulgaria in Chaos Before Prince Alexander’s Arrival

When Prince Alexander first arrived in Sofia, Bulgaria was in complete chaos. The situation was much worse than what Cuba experienced after the Spanish-American War. The Bulgarian people had endured terrible suffering, which shocked the civilized world. They were oppressed by acts of cruelty that were hard to even describe.

The Ottoman rulers were harsh and punished the people with violence. The number of victims is not clear, but reports from foreign diplomats at the time tell a tragic story. The British minister, who investigated the situation, reported that at least 12,000 people were massacred in just one month by the Turks. Eugene Schuyler, the American consul in Constantinople, believed that 15,000 people had died during that same period.

A Country Devastated by War

For years, Bulgaria had been in a constant state of revolution and had been the battlefield of two powerful armies. These armies destroyed farms, burned down cities, and left a large part of the country in ruins. Many Bulgarians had to flee to the mountains to escape the destruction. After the war, most of the population was too poor and disheartened to rebuild their homes and communities Ephesus Sightseeing.

A Nation in Need of Strong Leadership

In the midst of this devastation, Bulgaria needed strong leadership. Although Prince Alexander was not perfect, his efforts to lead and improve the country were noteworthy. Under his reign, Bulgaria showed real progress, despite the many challenges it faced. Unfortunately, due to political turmoil and foreign interference, Bulgaria did not have the chance to fully recover and grow into a strong nation as it might have under more stable circumstances.

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The Ridge and the Milion

The ridge of the promontory was the central line of high ground in ancient Constantinople. One of the most important landmarks on this ridge was the Milion, the milestone from which all distances in the Roman Empire were measured. It stood just southwest of Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia) and marked the location of an old gate of Byzantium. This area served as a key reference point in the layout and measurement of the ancient city.

Fortifications from the Milion

From the Milion, the ancient city wall continued toward the twisted columns of the Tzycalarii. Based on the direction of the wall, historians believe these columns were located on the plateau near St. Irene, another important Byzantine church. From there, the wall sloped downward to the Sea of Marmara, near today’s Seraglio Lighthouse at a place once called Topi.

After reaching the sea, the wall turned north and ran along the shoreline, encircling the tip of the historic peninsula. Along the way, it passed the areas where the Thermae of Arcadius (public baths) and the Mangana Palace complex were later built.

The Early Size of Byzantium

According to two Byzantine historians, Anonymus and Codinus, this wall described the full circuit of Byzantium from its original foundation by Byzas (the legendary founder) all the way to the reign of Constantine the Great. However, their claim is not entirely accurate. In fact, archaeological and historical evidence shows that Byzantium’s walls enclosed a much larger area than the circuit they describe, especially by the year 196 AD, and perhaps even earlier.

Therefore, their description of the city’s size likely refers only to a very early stage in Byzantium’s history—possibly before it grew into an important regional and imperial center.

Strategic Locations Near the Wall

Historical sources help us locate certain buildings that once stood along this early wall. For example, the Strategion, a military training field like a parade ground, was located at the foot of the Second Hill, close to today’s Sirkeci Station. It was near the granaries by the Prosphorion Harbor, which were close to the Neorion (Bâb-ı Ali Gate)—a site once destroyed by fire Sofia Daily Tours.

Nearby was the Chalcoprateia, or Brass Market, situated close to the Great Basilica and the Yerebatan Cistern (Basilica Cistern), which still exists today. These landmarks help us better understand how the ancient wall of Byzantium shaped the life, trade, and defense of the city.

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Cultural Delights in Sofia

If you can tear yourself away from the fashion and sports channels in Sofia’s cafés and bars, you’ll discover a rich world of cultural experiences. Sofia offers high-quality art, music, theater, and more—and the ticket prices are surprisingly affordable by Western standards. There’s really no excuse to miss out.

Art Galleries Worth Visiting

Sofia is full of diverse art galleries showcasing both local and international talent. Here are some top choices:

Art Gallery Paris (B‑4, ul. Parizh 8; tel. [phone]; gallery‑paris.com)

A charming gallery representing young Bulgarian artists, especially those working in expressive, figurative styles Mystical Bulgaria Tours.

Open: 11:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Galeria Akademia (B‑4, ul. Shipka 1; tel. [phone]) Hosted by the Bulgarian Academy of Fine Arts, it features prestigious group exhibitions.

Open: 11:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Goethe-Institut Sofia (B‑4, ul. Budapeshta 1; tel. [phone]; goethe.de/sofia) Germany’s cultural centre hosts contemporary art exhibits and cultural events.

Open: Mon–Fri 10:00–14:00; Tue–Thu 14:00–19:00

Closed: Sat–Sun

Krug+ (Circle Plus) (B‑4, ul. Budapeshta 5; tel. [phone]) A cool gallery space showcasing cutting-edge work by local and international artists.

Open: 10:00–19:00, Mon–Fri; Sat–Sun 10:00–18:00

Lessedra Gallery (C‑3, ul. Milin kamak 25; tel. [phone]; lessedra.com) Specializes in Bulgarian and international prints and graphics. A great place to buy art.

Open: 15:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Maksim (B‑2, ul. Loryn 11; tel. [phone]) Features contemporary work by leading Bulgarian painters and sculptors.

Open: 11:00–18:30, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Rakursi Gallery (C‑3, ul. Khan Krum 4A; tel. [phone]; rakursi.com) A small private gallery with a mix of established and emerging Bulgarian artists. Offers paintings, prints, photos, and sculptures at all price levels.

Open: 10:00–19:00, Mon–Fri; Sat 11:00–18:00

Closed: Sun

Shipka 6 (B‑5, ul. Shipka 6; tel. [phone]; abhart.com) Located in the Bulgarian Artists’ Union building, Shipka 6 hosts a variety of exhibitions by local and international artists.

Open: 10:00–18:00, Tue–Sun

Closed: Mon

Sibank Gallery (B‑3, ul. Slavyanska 2; tel. [phone]) Run by a major bank, it showcases big names in Bulgarian contemporary art. Expect conceptual installations and modern works.

Open: 11:00–19:00, Mon–Fri

Closed: Sat–Sun

Sofia City Art Gallery (B‑3, ul. Gurko 1; tel. [phone]; sghg.cult.bg) This municipal gallery features high-profile shows by Bulgarian and international artists. It’s run by a creative curatorial team and is one of the best places to explore current Bulgarian art.

Open: 10:00–18:00, Mon–Fri; Sun 11:00–17:00

Closed: Mon

Tea Gallery (E‑2, ul. Dimitar Hadzhikotsev 10; tel. [phone]) A small spot featuring quirky and edgy contemporary paintings.

Open: 10:00–20:00, Mon–Fri; Sat 11:00–15:00

Closed: Sun

The Red House Cultural Centre

The Red House (Chervenata Kashta) (C‑4, ul. Lyuben Karavelov 15; tel. [phone]; redhouse-sofia.org) An early twentieth-century building converted into one of Sofia’s leading independent cultural centres. It features exhibitions, small concerts, video screenings, drama, and workshops. This creative hub attracts Sofia’s artsy crowd and hosts cutting-edge events.

Why Sofia’s Cultural Scene is a Must-See

Affordable prices: By Western standards, tickets to galleries, shows, and events are cheap.

Variety: Sofia offers a range of cultural experiences—traditional art, conceptual exhibitions, small performances, and community-led projects.

Fresh perspectives New galleries like Krug+ and Tea feature experimental and daring artwork.

Taking even a small break from TV will open you to an exciting, rich cultural world hidden in Sofia’s galleries and cultural centres. Whether you’re an art lover, a curious traveler, or just looking for something different, Sofia’s cultural scene is there, waiting to impress.

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O'Mahony Letters on the Balkans in 1914

First Letter: The Bulgarian and Serbian Treaty Before the War of 1912 November 2nd, 1914

Great Britain’s Declaration of War

Great Britain declared war on Germany because Germany broke a treaty, and by doing so, Britain gained eternal honor. In 1913, Bulgaria was forced to go to war with Serbia because Serbia broke a treaty. So, are treaties made by Great Powers more important than treaties made by smaller countries?

The Problem with Small Nations and Treaties

Since the Treaty of Berlin, which was one of the worst decisions in modern European history, the freedom of small nations has been ignored, and promises made to them have been broken. Military power and territorial greed have shaped the decisions of Europe’s leaders Sightseeing Turkey.

When Germany took control of Alsace and Lorraine, it made war between France and Germany inevitable. Similarly, if the Treaty of San Stefano had been respected, Bulgaria would have grown stronger and acted as a defense against aggression from more powerful neighbors.

The Treaty of Berlin’s Impact

The Treaty of Berlin placed the mainly Bulgarian population of Macedonia back under Turkish control. It also split the Bulgarian race into two smaller states. This decision put the Balkans at the mercy of powerful neighboring countries, and it set the stage for war between Austria and Russia, a war that was only a matter of time.

Britain’s Responsibility

Great Britain, which played a leading role in the Treaty of Berlin, bears a heavy responsibility for the division of the Bulgarian people. This responsibility still affects Britain more than any other European country today.

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The Growth of the Goriyani Resistance Movement

By the end of 1947, peasants made up 47% of those involved in the resistance movement in Bulgaria. This number grew significantly, reaching 70% between 1950 and 1951. After the opposition parties were eliminated, the communist government pushed forward with mass collectivization of land and the nationalization of private urban property. This effort followed the Soviet model closely and contributed to the spread of the Goriyani movement, an armed resistance group that fought against the communist regime.

The Spread of the Goriyani Movement

As the government continued to implement its policies, the Goriyani movement spread across the country. By the 1950s, almost every mountainous region in Bulgaria had active armed Goriyani detachments, supported by large numbers of local people. These resistance groups fought against the oppressive regime and its attempts to control rural life Private Bosphorus Tours.

Government’s Response Internal Military Battalions

The communist regime’s desperate efforts to eliminate the Goriyani resistance led to the creation of internal military battalions. By the end of 1948, the first battalions were formed. By October 1950, the number had increased to 10 battalions. These battalions were stationed in key cities, including Sofia, Plovdiv, Bourgas, Varna, Stara Zagora, Yambol, Blagoevgrad, and Belogradchik.

The Politburo of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party issued a decision to reorganize these internal military troops into a division. The number of battalions increased as the need for more troops grew. The mission of these military forces was clear: they were to fight and destroy the Goriyani detachments, and crush the entire resistance movement in Bulgaria.

The Role of the Military and State Security

The internal military forces were trained to operate like the Soviet Union’s internal forces. They were expected to be loyal to the Bulgarian Communist Party to the death. Along with the Bulgarian State Security forces, these battalions were tasked with eliminating the Goriyani resistance. Their goal was to wipe out the resistance and restore the government’s control over the country.

The Goriyani movement was an important chapter in Bulgaria’s resistance to the communist regime. Despite the government’s efforts to crush the movement, it continued to grow and spread, especially in the countryside. The creation of internal military battalions and the deployment of State Security forces demonstrated the regime’s determination to eliminate any form of opposition, including the armed resistance groups that were fighting for freedom.