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but also the leap into electronic typesetting, remaining essentially unchanged. It was popularised in the 1960s with the release of Letraset sheets containing
Lorem Ipsum passages, and more recently with desktop publishing software like Aldus PageMaker including versions of Lorem Ipsum.
Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. Lorem Ipsum
has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the 1500s, when an unknown printer took
a galley of type and scrambled it to make a type specimen book. It has survived not only five
centuries, but also the leap into electronic typesetting, remaining essentially unchanged.
It was popularised in the 1960s with the release of Letraset sheets containing Lorem Ipsum passages, and more recently with desktop publishing software like Aldus PageMaker including versions of Lorem Ipsum.
Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the 1500s,
when an unknown
printer took a galley of
type and scrambled it to
make a type specimen book.
It has survived not only five centuries, but also the leap into electronic typesetting, remaining essentially unchanged. It was popularised in the 1960s with the release of Letraset sheets containing Lorem Ipsum passages, and more recently with desktop publishing software like Aldus PageMaker including versions of Lorem Ipsum.
Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the 1500s, when an unknown printer took a galley of type and scrambled it to make
a type specimen book. It has survived not only five centuries, but also the leap into electronic typesetting, remaining essentially unchanged. It was popularised in the 1960s with the release of Letraset sheets containing Lorem Ipsum passages, and more recently with desktop publishing software like Aldus PageMaker including versions of Lorem Ipsum.
a type specimen book. It has survived not only five centuries, but also the leap into electronic typesetting, remaining essentially unchanged. It was popularised
in the 1960s with the release of Letraset sheets containing Lorem Ipsum passages, and more recently with desktop publishing software like Aldus PageMaker including versions of Lorem Ipsum.
a type specimen book. It has survived not only five centuries, but also the leap into electronic typesetting, remaining essentially unchanged. It was popularised in the 1960s with the release of Letraset sheets
W tym krótkim poradniku pokażę Ci, jak napisać scenę według schematu, który jest uniwersalny i z pewnością przełamie Twoją pisarską blokadę.
Scena, tak samo jak fabuła składa się z tych samych elementów: wprowadzenie, punkt zwrotny, jakieś przeszkody, rozwiązanie… itd.
Różnica jest taka, że elementy sceny mogą, ale nie muszą wpływać na rozwój fabuły: niektóre z tych elementów będą potrzebne tylko do urozmaicenia sceny, a niektóre wpłyną na całą fabułę.
Wprowadzenie sceny
Zaczniemy od wprowadzenia, czyli od czego zacząć, aby scena już na początku była zachęcająca i ciekawiła czytelnika.
Ważne! Jeśli decydujesz się na napisanie jakiejś sceny, to prawdopodobnie wydarzenia, które mają miejsce w opisywanej przez Ciebie scenie, są ważne dla fabuły lub rozwoju bohaterów. Jeśli jednak w danej scenie wszystko idzie gładko, bohaterowie się nie męczą, aby osiągnąć zamierzony cel, to być może wystarczy napisać krótkie podsumowanie — jeden lub dwa akapity, zamiast kilku stron.
We wprowadzeniu powinny być następujące informacje:
miejsce akcji
kto jest główną postacią w danej scenie, a kto postacią poboczną
cel sceny: co bohater chce osiągnąć (np. chce odzyskać dług)
inicjacja sceny, czyli od czego/ jak ma się rozpocząć dana scena
Określenie miejsca akcji i tego, kto jest głównym bohaterem danej sceny, jest proste, choć zdarzało mi się czytać maszynopisy, w których te informacje nie wybrzmiewały na początku sceny, tylko na końcu. Bywały też takie sceny, w których nie byłam w stanie stwierdzić, kto jest głównym bohaterem w tej konkretnej scenie.
Warto już w pierwszym akapicie zaznaczyć, kogo będzie dotyczyć dana scena i gdzie ten ktoś się znajduje.
Określenie celu sceny też nie należy do najtrudniejszych punktów na tej liście, ale bywa tak, że autorzy często zapominają o tym punkcie, zwłaszcza podczas pisania pierwszego draftu lub nawet drugiego czy trzeciego.
Czytelnik lubi wiedzieć, dlaczego czyta to, co czyta. W jego głowie krąży pytanie: „Po co mi to wiedzieć?”
Jeśli nie dostarczymy mu odpowiedzi na to pytanie, to bardzo szybko się znudzi Twoją historią i będzie poirytowany, ponieważ wszystko będzie „takie bezcelowe”.
W zależności od długości sceny ta informacja może wybrzmieć gdzieś na początku lub w środku, lub nawet na końcu — ale ona musi wybrzmieć, czytelnik musi wiedzieć, po co to wszystko.
Inicjacja sceny to nic innego jak poinformowanie czytelnika, o tym, że na przykład moja scena zacznie się od wartkiej akcji lub od sentymentalnej rozmowy. Scenę można również rozpocząć w sposób opisowy, ale nadmierna ilość takich opisów, które mają za zadanie wytłumaczyć (jak krowie na rowie) czytelnikowi pewne kwestie, jest nużąca.
Środek sceny
No dobrze, poinformowaliśmy czytelnika, z kim ma do czynienia, gdzie jest bohater i co chce osiągnąć, więc teraz musimy przejść do akcji.
Na tym etapie nasz bohater musi doświadczyć komplikacji, które można zintensyfikować, ale nie trzeba.
Jeśli bohaterowi wszystko przychodzi łatwo i tę łatwiznę opisujemy przez kilka stron, to czytelnik z pewnością po kilku takich scenach rzuci książką w kąt.
Komplikacje nie muszą być drastyczne! Może to na przykład być źle wykręcony numer telefonu lub ostatnia łyżeczka kawy w słoiczku, a bohater pije z dwóch.
Fakt, komplikacje mają za zadanie pokazać rozwój bohaterów, jeśli dana scena wpływa na całość fabuły. Ale mogą też posłużyć jako urozmaicenie sceny, aby czytelnik się nie nudził i mógł poczuć przywiązanie do bohatera — bo przecież doświadczają tych samych problemów.
Środek sceny można trochę zintensyfikować poprzez: niepewność, niebezpieczeństwo, wstrzymanie.
niepewność: bohater waha się, jest w kropce, nie ma dostatecznych informacji, aby podjąć decyzję itp.
niebezpieczeństwo: niebezpieczna jazda autem, która może doprowadzić do wypadku lub czający się w ciemnościach wróg
wstrzymanie: ktoś — lub coś — specjalnie blokuje naszego bohatera przed osiągnięciem celu sceny.
Punkt kulminacyjny
Po prostu — informacja, czy cel został osiągnięty.
W tym punkcie warto również dodać jakąś nową informację, która będzie punktem zapalnym dla kolejnej sceny. Może to być zwrot akcji, a może to być coś mniej krzykliwego, na przykład: poznanie nowej osoby, która wkroczy w życie naszego bohatera lub zakup air fryera, który w jakiś sposób poprawi jego samopoczucie. Może to być duże wydarzenia, a może to być coś mniej znaczącego.
Zakończenie
W tej sekcji sceny zwalniamy tempo akcji i dajemy czas czytelnikowi na przetrawienie tego, co się właśnie wydarzyło.
Jeśli akcja sceny polegała na walce o przetrwanie, to możemy ukryć naszego bohatera w dziupli, aby złapał oddech i przeanalizował pole walki.
Jeśli naszemu bohaterowi nie udało zamówić się kawy w obcym języku, możemy pokazać drogę do domu naszego bohatera i jego przemyślenia.
Możemy też dodać informacje, które zachęcą czytelnika do kontynuowania lektury, na przykład:
Czy bohater wróci na pole walki i pokona wroga, a może wymyśli nowy sprytniejszy plan?
Czy bohater podda się i już nigdy nie przemówi w obcym języku, a może pójdzie do innej kawiarni i tam spróbuje swoich sił?
W następnym poście przeanalizuję scenę, aby pokazać Wam, jak ten schemat wygląda w praktyce.
～まま roughly translates to 'as it is' or 'in the state of,' but it covers a wide range of situations that are not always easily understood or directly translatable.
Context: Levi to himself in episode 2 (or 39), season 3. The legendary chase scene with Kenny. Levi just 'entered' the drinking establishment and said:
クソ このままじゃ部下もエレンもヒストリアも失う
Shit. If it goes on like this, I'll lose my men, Eren, and Historia, too.
部下 (ぶか) = subordinates (men)
失う (しなう) = to lose (people) (to lose a thing is 無くす (なくす))
Note: The English translation is a conditional sentence. Where is ～たら、～なら、～ば、～と in Japanese? It’s well hidden!
このままじゃ = If it goes on like this
じゃ (colloquial style) ・では (formal style)
However, some people say that this little じゃ means だと/ だとしたら and that’s where the conditional meaning is hidden.
で refers to states; more here
Conditional sentences are here
But today’s grammar is ～まま.
I already made a short post about it. Check it out too!
When I asked my Japanese conversation partners what it meant, they always said, 'As it is.' Well, that sounds simple, but that’s only one way to think about it.
"As it is" has three meanings in English:
already
the way it is
with the situation that exists now
While you can use ‘as it is’ in your translation, I feel that in some contexts, it’s better to be more precise with your word choice or to make English sound natural.
～まま grammar
There’s no 1:1 translation. It’s better to learn it as a concept conveying:
States that can stay unchanged; remain in the same condition/state; e.g. I’m sitting and there’s no need to stand up.
～まま is used for static states, often contrasting with actions.
If something hasn’t changed for a while, we can use this structure as well; e.g. She has been like this since yesterday (like this = in a certain state).
You can also use it to express your current state/condition; e.g. I’m weak. My current state/condition is 'being weak.'
Like this/that = doing things in a certain manner.
At this rate = used to say what will happen if the present situation continues.
That’s basically it.
So, what is Levi really saying?
この refers to Kenny killing Levi’s people and basically f*cking everyone's shit up.
まま refers to the fact that Kenny has been killing Levi's people for a good amount of time. It hasn’t changed from the start of the episode until the moment Levi uttered the sentence.
このままじゃ = If the state of Kenny (and Kenny's team) killing my people will continue…
In the post with Akaza and Rengoku,
死んでくれ、Kyojuro、若くて強いまま
Akaza is asking Rengoku to die while his state is 'being young' and strong or to die to remain in this young and strong state.
Grammar mechanics
It’s a noun/adverb
noun + の + まま
adjective + まま (don’t remove な from な-adj or い from い-adj)
demonstrative pronouns この; その; あの + まま
verbs + まま (past tense is very common in this case. Verbs in the past tense can act like adjectives; e.g. written language; 'written' is the past participle of 'write' and it acts like an adjective and adjectives = states.）
some passive forms + まま; e.g 言われるまま = as I am told (my current state is that I know some information, someone has told me something, my state is 'being informed/told')
ない verbs + まま = without
Note 1: なし can’t be used interchangeably with まま. なし (without) doesn’t refer to “being in a certain state. It refers to people, objects, or emotions. You want these things out of your life completely.
Note 2: ～まま and ～ながら might seem similar, but ～ながら is used for action/dynamic verbs.
Note 3: ～ままにする = to leave something untouched; to remain intact
Examples
The theory for this grammar isn't difficult to understand, but when it comes to real-life application, that's when the struggle starts.
Let's examine examples to get the hang of ～まま.
進撃の巨人
Context: Berthold to Reiner in season 3, episode 15 (or 52).
もし そうなれば何も分からないままだ
If that happens, we won’t learn anything.
Eren is carrying the boulder to seal the wall. He might get eaten by the other titans. Without Eren Reiner and Berthold won’t obtain any information.
ないままだ = negative verb form + まま = without knowing (their state will be 'uninformed')
Lit. We will be left in an uninformed condition if that happens (if Eren gets eaten)
もし そうなれば = conditional form
Context: Marlo to Hitch while looking for Levi who has just been pronounced a traitor (season 3, episode 4). They are discussing the future of the Survey Corps and the current situation.
調査兵団がこのまま解体されたら人類は…
If the Survey Corps gets disbanded like this, humanity won’t...
このまま is totally absent from the translation; however, it means 'in the current situation.' If you analyze the context in which this sentence has been said, it makes sense why Marlo said it.
In English, though, it seems unnecessary to say out loud: 'if this situation continues.'
We all know they are in a bad position. We can infer it from the context. However, 'like this' seems to capture the nuance of このまま.
Leaving out このまま would, probably, sound like a plain statement; an action that has no relation to current events. Some things are obvious to us (in English); some things have to be articulated in Japanese.
Marlo is literally saying: If the current situation continues, Survey Corps will get disbanded, and humanity will…
At this point in the anime, Erwin has made a lot of risky decisions and that lowered the reputation of his squad.
そのままの姿勢で指示どおりに動く
Context: Marlo to Armin seconds before Levi and Mikasa ambushed Marlo and Hitch.
Stay in the same position and move as instructed.
姿勢 (しせい) = posture; pose; position [noun]
どおり = in accordance with; following [used as a suffix]
指示 (しじ) = instructions; directions
動く(うごく) = to move
そのまま + の + noun = the [noun] remains as you see it; just the way it is/was; you are/were; just like that
そのまま refers to Armin’s position. He wasn’t holding any gun and had his hands up. Marlo wanted him to stay in that position.
Up next are examples from Naruto:
それから気を失ってずっと このまま…
Context: Sakura about Tsunade who used all her chakra to protect the village during Pain’s attack. She was unconscious.
She has lost her consciousness and has been like that since then…
このまま refers to Tsunade’s state. Unconscious state that remained unchanged for a while.
'Like that' = doing things in a certain manner = she was laying down unconscious.
That’s another example of when このまま refers to an action you need to see to get a better understanding.
From a different episode:
火影が逃げたままじゃぜ。
Context: Oonoki at the 5 kage summit. Sasuke showed up and wanted to act cool but he failed. Obito saved his uncool ass and then disappeared. All the Kages were discussing what to do with the situation. Oonoki mentioned Hokage who was still on the run.
Hokage is still running away.
逃げる (にげる) = run away
じゃ means だ・です・である when it is placed at the end of a sentence.
ぜ and ぞ are sentence-final particles used (primarily) by male speakers which are more colloquial versions of the particle よ.
Past tense + まま = the verb happened and that hasn’t changed. Danzou ran away and at the moment of speaking, he was still running away.
Remember that past-form verbs act like adjectives. まま is a noun so the verb 逃げた describes/modifies the noun. Danzou is in 'a ran-away state.'
Zetsu vs. Madara
かつて Kaguya は この無限月読を人々にかけたが殺さずに生かしたまま保存しておいた
Context: Zetsu while killing Madara and explaining the biggest plot twist ever.
Once, Kaguya cast Mugen Tsukuyomi on people, but she didn't kill them, she kept them alive.
かつて once
生かす (いかす) = to let live; to keep alive
保存 (ほぞん) = preservation; conservation; storage; maintenance [suru verb; here in ～ておく form which means to do/prepare something (for yourself or for other people) in advance for future convenience]
殺さずに (ころさずに) = without killing
ずに vs. なし vs. まま
ずに means ‘without,’ but it can only be used with verbs. You can’t replace it with まま because it doesn’t imply that the speaker will stay in a certain state. Single actions. なし means ‘without’ as well, but it refers to people, objects, or emotions.
Past tense + まま = the verb happened and the action of that verb continued. So, letting them stay alive continued for a while. Lit. For future convenience, she stored them in a living state.
僕のヒーローアカデミア
Context: Todoroki while fighting Stain. He’s analyzing the situation.
俺なら 距離を保ったまま…
It'd be better to keep my distance...
俺なら = When it comes to me/Since it’s me [and my fighting style]… It would be better to keep my distance.
保つ (たもつ) = to keep; to preserve; to hold; to retain; to maintain; to sustain
距離 (きょり ) = distance
past tense + まま = it’s better to be in a state of staying away (clumsy!)
One more example from the same episode:
Context: Endeavour about Nomu. He used some sick move on Nomu, and it survived the blow which surprised Enji.
意識を保ったままでいられるのは初めてだな
That's the first time someone has been able to stay conscious.
保つ (ともつ) = to keep; to preserve
意識 (いしき ) = consciousness
past tense + まま = the verb happened. Nomu kept its consciousness and didn’t lose it when Enji was speaking. Nomu is in the state of being conscious.
で refers to states as well. I feel like まま +で is a common combination when we want to add more after まま.
More on that topic here.
One more example of that combination.
Context: The dog-looking police officer to Deku after their fight with Stain. They were in the hospital.
掛けたままで結構だワン (woof)
There’s no need to get up.
掛ける (かける) = to rest
結構 (けっこう) = well enough; OK; tolerable
And we will finish this post with 呪術廻戦
Context: Gojo vs Jogo. Gojo is encouraging Jogo to hold hands… Gojo’s sass level...
僕は このまま握手してもいいんだけど ... てれるなよ
I don't mind shaking hands like this... Come on, don't be shy…
The translator aimed for sass and naturalness. Good job.
握手 (あくしゅ) = hand shake
～てもいい = it’s ok if we…
てれるなよ = to be shy; to be bashful; to feel awkward; to feel embarrassed [here in its imperative form “don’t be shy”]
んだけど is here
このまま = in this manner; like that/this. Here you really need to see the scene. We could say, (lit.) 'Our hands can remain in such a state.' You’re physically showing to your speaker what you want to do.
Context: Yuuji is back alive. Gojo and Shoko discuss what to do about that (episode 6).
(Shōko) ああ…. 報告 修正しないとね
The report. I have to fix it.
(Gojo) いや このままで いい
Nah. It’s okay as it is. (lit. it's ok in its current state)
More on で is here
And the conversation continues:
(Gojo) 硝子 悪いが 記録上 悠仁 (Yuuji) は死んだままにしてくれ
Shōko, sorry, but Yuji needs to stay dead in the report.
このままで = Gojo says that the state of the report having Itadori marked as dead is fine.
死んだままにしてくれ = past tense + まま ＋にする = leave the record which is in the state of having Yuuji marked as dead intact.
～てくれ = to do a favor.
Context: Yuuji to Gojo in the basement (episode 6). He’s ok with staying hidden for a while because he can’t face Fushiguro and Kugisaki in his current state.
今のままじゃ あいつらに顔向けできねえよ
今のまま = in my current state… He thinks he’s weak and needs to gain more power to protect his friends.
～まま can be challenging because of its nuanced usage and context-dependent meaning, however, I hope these examples helped you understand the logic behind this grammar structure a bit better.
This semi-master post aims to explain modality from a purely linguistic perspective and introduce Japanese modal phrases.
Modality is my all-time favorite topic because it explores how speakers convey subtle nuances of meaning. It's fascinating to see how we use modal structures to communicate complex ideas such as possibility and necessity, and how, despite both speakers sharing the same information, misunderstandings can still arise.
While modality refers to how we express meanings like possibility, necessity, ability, or permission, the way these concepts are communicated can vary significantly across cultures due to differences in social norms, values, and expectations.
Before we dive in
Japanese is a nuanced language as it is, add to it a nuanced grammar concept, and we have a great confusing combo.
Modality in English is rather straightforward. There is a set of verbs, adverbs, and phrases that are universal and versatile. English speakers rarely consider social hierarchies, politeness, and indirectness while incorporating modal structures in their sentences. Sure, they do it to some extent, but when compared to the Japanese, well, we might as well say that they actually don’t do it.
Some things that we all know about, yet we forget them once we encounter a modal structure:
modal structures in English encompass a variety of meanings. For example, ‘must’ can be used to express logical assumptions as well as obligations.
there are no 1:1 equivalents in Japanese. ‘Must’ can be translated as しなければいけません but also as だろう.
some Japanese modal structures will be lost in translation, simply because they are non-existent in English. Some of them can easily be expressed through the tone of one’s voice and intonation in English, with no need for lexical reinforcement.
directness or strong commands are not in favor when speaking Japanese. Instead, Japanese modal structures are like ‘requests’ often phrased politely or tentatively, reflecting the emphasis on maintaining harmony and avoiding imposition.
Of course, some phrases have direct translations, like かもしれない (might, maybe), but in the majority of cases, it’s better first to think about the context and then choose the appropriate structure.
If you want to learn more about English modality, I recommend Grammarway books, as they discuss this topic in an easy-to-understand way.
Modality—definition
Modality, in simple words, allows speakers to express the “possibility” of a past, present, or future situation. It helps convey: desires, the likelihood of a situation, and that something is permissible. In some languages, it is well-developed and standardized, and some languages don’t even have the concept of modality.
Compare:
Momo did it!
Momo might have done it.
The Past Simple tense is used when you are 100% sure of what you’re saying. You’re accusing Momo and this is a very strong statement.
Might have done it is used when there are doubts. You’re not sure, however, you’re suspecting Momo.
In linguistics, displacement is the capability of language to communicate about things that are not immediately present (spatially or temporally). Animals communicate things that are only happening now; in front of their eyes. Human beings can go further than that. We can discuss the past, future, present, alternative past situations, imaginary/unreal situations, etc.
Modality is a sign of displacement. It helps express extra information about a verb, for example, whether the verb is possible to happen, how sure I am about the verb to happen, whether it’s a good idea or maybe it is just my guess; speakers express attitudes toward actions or events.
Understanding modality can help learn a language better and faster because it gives insights into expressing possibilities, necessities, abilities, permissions, and obligations—essential parts of everyday communication.
Many languages use modality to adjust politeness or formality. For example, “Could you help me?” is more polite than “Can you help me?”. Recognizing this helps navigate social situations appropriately.
The most common categorization of modality in English is as follows:
Modal Verbs:
Examples: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to.
Usage: “I can help” (ability), “You must go” (necessity), “It might rain” (possibility).
Examples: be able to, have to, be supposed to, I think, I guess, etc.
Usage: “You have to finish this by Monday.”
Conditional Sentences:
Expressing hypothetical or uncertain situations: “If I were you, I would study more.”
In short, modality shapes how English speakers add layers of meaning—like doubt, certainty, or obligation—to their sentences.
Types of modality
epistemic modality (i.e., expressions that relate to displacement according to what is known or believed, conjectures, guesses)
(epistemic: relating to knowledge or the study of knowledge (Macmillan Dictionary))
prioritizing modality (i.e., expressions that characterize what is permitted, required, or desired)
dynamic modality (relating to what courses of events are compatible with a particular body of facts/ circumstances and/or a subject’s abilities, describing abilities).
deontic modality (i.e., modal expressions relating to permissions, requirements, and wishes; modal expressions that relate to rules, laws, or regulations of some sort; indicates how the world ought to be according to certain norms, expectations, speaker desires, etc.)
Expressions of epistemic modality
～だろう,
～はずだ,
～に違いない,
～かもしれない
These four phrases are conventionally associated with the domain of knowledge and belief.
だろう
でしょう
はずだ
These three express the outcome of an inferential process (Research paper by Hara, 2006).
An inferential process is a cognitive process of making logical connections and drawing conclusions based on background knowledge and information explicitly stated.
Example:
A: Guess what? I had to give a presentation in English in front of a lot of people
ねえ聞いて！大勢(おおぜい)の人の前で、英語でプレゼンしなきゃいけなかったの。
B: Really? It must have been difficult for you.
本当？ じゃ大変だったろうに。
Formal: 本当ですか？では大変だったことでしょう 。
In this context, the inferential process could be as follows: Your friend is self-conscious about speaking English in one-on-one situations, let alone in front of a big crowd. Your logical connection is that it must have been difficult. Your friend has always been saying that they hate speaking English, they dislike big crowds (background information). When you take everything into account, the conclusion is: that it must have been difficult.
～に違いない (lit. ‘there is no mistake in’, Narrog, 2009:89) suggests that what comes before it is entailed. For example: spending more than you earn, entails financial problems; Being rich entails the risk of being robbed.
お金持ちに違いない
You must be rich.
Seeing your huge house, expensive car, and other luxuries ← these entail richness. You must be rich.
Example:
A: Can you call this number to cancel our reservation?
この番号(ばんごう)に電話(でんわ)して、予約(よやく)をキャンセルしてくれない？
B: Sure. The call won’t connect.
いいよ。電話が繋(つ)がらない。
A: You must have called the wrong number.
違(ちが)う番号にかけたでしょ。
Formal: 違う番号にかけたに違いないですよ 。
Dialing the wrong number entails no connection.
かもしれない (lit. ‘can’t know whether’) suggests that whatever comes before it is compatible with what is known. Simply put, it means that the information marked by かもしれない can simply coexist with what we know.
We’re preparing a presentation, and we need more ideas. We’re brainstorming some, and I throw in something marked by かもしれない. I did no harm, and my idea can coexist with other ideas.
Examples:
Listen, you might have been busy with something else too, but I’m pretty sure you were flirting with that girl. That’s why you didn’t send the report!
聞いて、別(べつ)のことで忙しかったかもしれないけど、間違(まちが)いなく[adverb]女の子といちゃついてた。だからレポートを提出(ていしゅつ)しなかったんでしょ。
I might have left my key at the restaurant.
鍵をレストランに置(お)いてきたかもしれない。
The student might have found it difficult.
生徒はそれを難しいと思ったかもしれない。
Senpai! The truth is… I had a terrible accident yesterday! I could have died!
本当は、昨日ひどい事故(じこ)にあった。死(し)んで（い）たかもしれない。
In all of those examples, the ideas can coexist with other possibilities. My coworker might have been busy but also might have been sick, or there was some other personal issue at play. I chose to say ‘busy’ because that was the first thing that came to my mind, but ‘you might have been sick’ would also work. Those ideas do not exclude each other, they don’t entail anything, and the inferential process is really weak (there’s no background or implied information).
Prioritizing modality
I like to think about it as a scale, a priority scale.
1 = not important, whatever;
10 = you’ll end up in the pits of hell if you do or do not do something.
Some things are super important and some are not. Japanese use conditional(-like) structures to express that something is permissible or required given the relevant rules or goals.
Among the expressions that relate to rules, regulations, laws, goals, and wishes, we can distinguish:
～てもいい (It is good even if you [verb.])
～ではいけない (If/when [verb/phrase], it can’t go.)
～なければならない・いけない (‘If I [verb/phrase], it doesn’t become.)
I’d place these expressions between 5 and 10. You need to consider who is the speaker as well. If the emperor tells you that something is てもいい well, THE EMPEROR said that, so it’s 10, and don’t you dare to argue with that.
These expressions (on my scale) are 1-5:
～ほうがいい; the weaker notion that something is recommendable based on practical considerations (without being outrightly necessary) (lit. ‘the direction is good’).
～べきだ; the formal noun べきだ is semantically similar but tends to involve a notion of moral or social appropriateness, the right thing to do, which can be absent from ほうがいい.
～たらいい
More on べきだ and here
Extra: Finally, imperatives (verbal ending ～え/～よ/～ろ) and ～なさい, (used with children and for instructions) as well as ～てください (for polite requests) and ”let’s [verb]” forms, also express notions of prioritizing as well as deontic modality.
Dynamic modality
Dynamic modality is a tricky category, but in short: it refers to the way modality expresses the agent’s ability, willingness, or potential to act, rather than just external necessity or possibility. In other words, it focuses on what the subject can do, wants to do, or is able to do, often highlighting capacity and intent.
Verb + ことができる
Verb stem + る (見る → 見られる)
～たい;
～てほしい;
～つもりです
〜ようと思う
～てもいい (some linguists say that this structure falls within this category as well)
Deontic modality
Deontic modality refers to the type of modality that expresses necessity, obligation, permission, and prohibition—in other words, what is required, allowed, or forbidden. This kind of modality deals with actions and states governed by social rules, laws, norms, or personal decisions. In contrast to epistemic modality (which deals with knowledge and belief), deontic modality concerns how we discuss actions in terms of moral, social, or legal obligations and permissions.
なければならない
べきだ
なければいけない
〜てもいい
〜てはいけない
〜てはならない
〜たらいい
〜たほうがいい
NOTE! You probably noticed that some of those phrases and structures belong to one or two categories. Modality is inherently flexible and context-dependent. This means that a single phrase might be used in different ways depending on the situation, intention, or interpretation of the speaker.
Phew! Lots of information, but you might be wondering why you need to know this. Simply because it can help you sort your knowledge out and shed new light on modal structures. It’s a tricky topic and the more perspectives and takes are available, the better!
In English ESL textbooks, modality is usually divided into categories such as:
(logical) assumptions
speculations
guesses
necessity
obligation
duties
ability (and the lack of it)
prohibition
possibility
probability
permission (giving, asking, and refusing, but also: talking about it)
suggestion
request
advice
offers
criticism
I haven’t found a list of Japanese modal structures divided into such detailed categories. Japanese textbooks rarely inform learners that a given structure is a modal structure.
As an exercise, instead of translating Japanese modal phrases to their English equivalents, you can try to match English categories to Japanese modal phrases.
The Japanese phrases I have listed in this post are the most common ones.
The next step (after assigning Japanese phrases to the English categories) is to think about the context in which those phrases can be uttered, for example: formal documents, road signs, parent-child relationships, etc.
That's it for this modality post! If you have any questions, feel free to e-mail me or send an ask through Tumblr :)
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