Casually Explaining Nuclear Knowlege

[reddpenn]

I got a Geiger counter!

Let’s look through my collection for some Spicy Rocks!  I’ve never deliberately collected radioactive specimens, so I have no idea what I’m going to find.

First, though, let’s test the baseline level of radiation in my house.

It’s fun to hear the Geiger counter click as it detects radiation.  20 counts per minute.  Nice!  You’re unlikely to ever see a count of zero, as pretty much everything in the world, including the human body, gives off a little bit of radiation. 

20 is a normal baseline, nothing to be concerned about.  Standing in my house, I’m getting a radiation dose of about 0.00013 milliseieverts per hour - or a little over one mSv a year.  This is an average yearly dosage of radiation for people in my country, and is something my body can easily process.  For context, a dosage of 100 mSv would slightly increase my risk of cancer, and a dosage of 1000 mSv would immediately give me radiation sickness.

But enough about these boring, safe amounts of radiation.  I want to see some spice!  Let’s check over by the Rock Wall!

Hm, I’d expected the CPM to be noticeably higher around my rock collection, but I’m getting nothing!  Even testing each individual rock, nothing’s more than a few ticks above the baseline.  So far, my fancy new toy is looking like wasted money.  :c

WAIT!  THERE!!  62 CPM!  That’s three times higher than the base reading in the rest of my house!!!  YESSS!!  THIS ROCK IS SPICY!!!!

Here’s the rock that’s setting off my Geiger counter.  (Yes I’m touching the spicy rock with my bare hands, don’t worry about it.) 

This fossil, which is as big as my head, is part of the femur bone of a Megalonyx, a North American giant ground sloth!

These huge animals could grow as big as ten feet tall.  They lived alongside humans during the last ice age, and it’s theorized that humans may have hunted them to extinction.  This particular fossil was found in a phosphate mine!

Why is it radioactive?  Because… sometimes fossils are just radioactive!  They spend a lot of time in the ground, which is full of radioactive minerals, and often radiation just gets all up in there.  There are some fossils on display in museums which are so radioactive that they have to be coated with lead paint for the safety of curators and museum-goers!  Compared to those, this femur bone is barely radioactive at all.

So is it really safe for me to have this in my house, much less handle it with my bare hands?  Well, yeah!  Remember, despite having this spicy rock in my collection, the radiation baseline in my house is completely normal.  Here’s why.

Even just a few centimeters away from this specimen, the Geiger counter’s reading is halved.  A few inches away, and it can’t detect any radiation at all.  It basically has to be directly touching the rock to get an abnormal reading.  Which means I also have to be touching the rock to receive a meaningful amount of radiation exposure.

But even holding this rock in my hands, I’m only getting a dosage of about 0.0004 mSv per hour.  If I never let go of this rock for an entire year, I would get a dose of about 3.5 mSv.  Which is… still completely within the safe threshold for my body to process.  Nothing to worry about!

Man, I gotta start collecting some spicier rocks.

[vexwerewolf]

Love how many nuclear science papers in the period between 1986 and 1995 carry the general message of "well this is fucking awful, it should never have happened and Christ we hope it never happens again, but on the other hand this is fascinating"

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The Taste of Radiation

“Do you taste metal?” - quote spoken by many characters in the HBO miniseries Chernobyl.

Radiation, with very few exceptions, is entirely invisible. Undetectable to the naked eye, how can one become aware that they are in the presence of a hidden enemy? One other sense might just come in handy for late-stage radiation detection, the sense of smell.

Chernobyl Place is a website dedicated to all things related to the disaster. From recent information about the exclusion zone to available tours, this website is a treasure trove of independently sourced information. One of their articles tackles this very problem, saying “the smell of ozone and metallic taste in the mouth is a sign of strong radiation. A smaller, but still dangerous intensity of radiation has no smell, no taste, it can only be detected by a dosimeter.” Essentially, if you can smell it, get as far away as possible.

               Sometimes, during chemotherapy, changes in taste can be noted by those receiving treatment. It might be bitter, metallic, or salty. Some even lose their entire sense of taste.

               During the Manhattan Project, scientists were just beginning to create the element plutonium. One day, in 1944, scientist Don Mastick was holding most of the world’s supply, small enough that it was “…so small it would have fit on the head of a pin,” (Welsome). That was, until he accidentally snapped the vial in his hand.

               "I could taste the acid so I knew perfectly well I had a little bit of plutonium in my mouth," Mastick is cited as having said in a 1995 interview.

                Though a mouthful of radioactive particulate matter is neither healthy nor advisable, Mastick did survive his ordeal.

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Favorite Videos, Movies, TV Shows About Nuclear/ Radioactive Topics

If reading isn’t your style, visual media is always an engaging way to absorb information. I have spent a fair amount of time scouring On Demand and YouTube for information on these subjects. Most focus on the dire consequences of nuclear power, as that is a lot more interesting to watch than explaining how a light water graphite-moderated reactor works. But, still, if you want to engage in more content around this topic, here are my top 5.

5. “Nuclear Explosions Compilation High Quality” by Dom Productions on YouTube- Just a small sampling of atomic bomb tests that were filmed over the years. All sources come from atomcentral.com, where a restoration expert named Peter Kuran fixes up the tapes and showcases them on the website. Witnessing the absolute power that these weapons have is both mesmerizing and horrifying. Well worth a watch if you can handle the repeated booms.

4. “The Babushkas of Chernobyl” by Holly Morris on Prime Video- The Exclusion Zone from the Chernobyl disaster is 30 kilometers from the reactor itself. Many people living in towns and villages were forced to flee their homes due to the unending threat of radiation. But there are some people who have defied the official government ruling and have returned to their homes located in the Exclusion Zone. Some have been named ‘babushkas,’ grandmothers who wish to be where they have always been, despite the potential dangers. A story of resilience and bravery, it is a fascinating watch to learn more about the real people who were affected by the Chernobyl disaster.

3. “A Brief History of: The Demon Core (Short Documentary)” by Plainly Difficult on YouTube- Plainly Difficult (John) has uploaded many videos regarding nuclear accidents. An underrated channel, I think this is the perfect video to begin exploring his stuff. This one hunk of plutonium is responsible for two deaths, hence its name. The circumstance behind both incidents is a harrowing tale, and John summarized it succinctly and with grace.

2. “I Got Access to Chernobyl’s Deadliest Area” by Kyle Hill on YouTube- Not many people get access to inside the New Safe Containment. The largest moving structure, this giant arch covers Reactor No. 4 at Chernobyl and the old Sarcophagus. He goes to places most people will never be able to see, coming along with a team of scientists. Accompanied by the constant screams of Geiger counters, Hill still promotes the positives that nuclear power can do for the world, if only we learn from our mistakes.

1. “Chernobyl” by Craig Mazin on HBO- To the surprise of no one, this award-winning production is a must-watch. While not completely accurate to the 1986 disaster, it still captures and shows the reality of the disaster. Incredible acting, enthralling soundtrack, beautiful scenery, and despite its faults on some factual points, the cultural impact this mini-series has had speaks for itself.

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My Favorite Books on Nuclear / Radiation Topics

Throughout posting, I have discussed different sources to learn more about my favorite, complicated, topic. But I also love to encourage people to read. I have 31 books surrounding these subjects; some I have read and some I have not. But from this pile, I want to give you guys my top 5.

5. The original IAEA report on Chernobyl: Admittedly, I have not finished this one yet, mainly because I want to give it my full, undivided attention. This 150+ page document cannot be found on the IAEA website, I had to do some digging to actually find it. Essentially, it is the governing body of nuclear sciences buying the Soviet propaganda hook, line, and sinker. If you can find it, give it a once over. But I have no idea where it is ;)

4. Command and Control by Eric Schlosser: Not a quick read by any means. However, I found it interesting. Broken Arrow Incidents are when the United States loses an atomic bomb. It has happened more than once. Talk about an orphan source…

3. Atomic Women by Roseanne Montillo: The role of women within the history of nuclear science cannot be overstated. Starting with Marie Curie, this story recounts the women who worked within studies for radioactive material, as well as the Manhattan Project.

2. Hiroshima by John Hersey: This book is incredible. It is so well-known for a reason. Packed within this small book are some of the most harrowing descriptions of the results of the atomic bomb. I could not put it down.

1. Midnight in Chernobyl by Adam Higginbotham: The pinnacle of literature. I remember laying in bed, reading as Higginbotham recounted the harrowing final minutes before the explosion. It was like I could feel it in my bones. This is definitely in my top 5 books of all time, so it comes as no surprise it is number 1 here. If you take anything from my blog, it should be to read this book.

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Nuclear Submarines

Not many are aware that countries across the world have nuclear submarines. Powered by mini nuclear reactors, these subs have been around since the mid 1950’s. From the EPA, “In 1954, the Navy launched the first submarine that used radioactive material as a power source. Its name was the USS Nautilus and it was the first submarine to travel to the North Pole in 1958.” But the United States was not the only nuclear state producing such machinery.

               While the U.S shared its information on this new technology with Britain, “French, Russian and Chinese developments proceeded separately,” (WNA ‘Nuclear-Powered Ships’). All were looking towards nuclear power to run their newest navy submarines.

               These submarines are powered by miniature nuclear reactors. None, to the public’s knowledge, have nuclear warheads on board though. That does not mean there is no threat with the sensitive substances being used to run the powerful vessel. The Soviet Union has had multiple radiation leeks over the years. The World Nuclear Association comments the nation has had “…five [accidents] where the reactor was irreparably damaged, and more resulting in radiation leaks. There were more than 20 radiation fatalities.” As always with nuclear power, there is a give and take. It can run an entire submarine, no need to refuel. But there is nowhere to escape radioactive contaminants at the bottom if the sea.

[nuclear-breakdown]

Operation Crossroads: Castle Bravo

After the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the U.S. government knew it needed to test more nuclear weapons. They wanted to know what they had created. With the Cold War slowly ramping up in the background, the Manhattan Project and U.S. Military began a series of tests.

               In the Marshall Islands, right by a populated Bikini Atoll, multiple nuclear tests occurred. Some were many times more powerful than the ones dropped on Japan. The goal, according to BikiniAtoll.info, “…was an attempt to better understand the effect of atomic weapons on naval targets.” To do this, “Between 1946 and 1958, there were 23 nuclear devices detonated at various spots on, within, above, or beneath Bikini Atoll.” At least 100 Indigenous peoples lived on the island. Because of these tests, evacuations were ordered. The high rates of cancer among the native population is more than likely a result of radiation exposure.

               The most shocking of the detonations was Castle: Bravo. Those working in the Manhattan Project estimated the explosive power to be a few megatons. Certainly a lot, but nowhere near the 15 megatons that ended up detonating.

               How could such a mistake occur? The bomb detonated at unthinkable levels, causing more contamination than ever estimated. What could possibly be the reason? The answer was in one of the products, tritium. The scientists apart of the test did not account for one thing. From The National Interest, “Cascading neutrons transformed the lithium-7 isotope—that comprised most of the “dry fuel”—into tritium and helium. Tritium causes extremely energetic fusion. It was the thermonuclear equivalent of throwing gasoline on a small blaze and producing an instant conflagration.” Fusion is what makes nuclear weapons go off, so the fact that it was energized to such an unthinkable degree caused a massive explosion, the largest the United States ever produced.

               A Japanese fishing vessel, translated into English as “The Lucky Dragon No.5,” was at the outskirts of the exclusion zone for the bomb. Due to the bomb being so much more powerful than ever thought, the radius was not enough to stop the Lucky Dragon from being overrun with contaminants. Radioactive ash fell upon the ship. All of the men on board became ill. One lost his life.

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Chernobyl

It was April 26, 1986, and Anatoly Dyatlov was in charge. Tasked with running a test for Reactor No. 4 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, it began much later than planned, and with an entirely different crew. Beginning just after 1 AM, the maintenance program immediately went array.

               Under Dyatlov was shift supervisor Aleksandr Akimov and senior reactor control chief Lenoid Toptunov. They had access to a guide that was meant to give step-by-step instructions on how to run the tests. However, many of the steps had been crossed out or written over. The previous shift had told them to ignore the alterations.

               The power levels in the reactor core began to fluctuate at inappropriate levels. The shift personnel on scene were becoming nervous over the state of the reactor. Akimov was alleged to have voiced his wishes for the test to be halted, but Dyatlov was insistent on it being carried out to completion. But the worrying numbers became too much for 25-year-old Toptunov. At 1:23.4 AM, he pressed the A-Z5 button, meant to immediately stop any activity in the reactor by inserting all control rods into the core. Instead, two explosions rocked the building.

               The control rods are meant to halt fission activity in a reactor core, to stop any radioactive power generation halt. But, unknowing to the crew, Soviet RBMK reactors, the type used at Chernobyl, had a horrible flaw. The tips of the control rods were covered in graphite. Graphite, instead of stopping nuclear fission, makes it increase many times over. With all rods being inserted at once, the power level rose to an unknown number. First, the upper shield of the reactor was blown clean off, smashing through the ceiling of Reactor No. 4. Pipes and wires were destroyed upon the blast. Without water being able to run into the core, another explosion occurred, flinging radioactive debris everywhere.

               Radioactive isotopes were flung out into the open air. Firemen arrived to put out what they thought was a burning roof fire. Instead, they came face-to-face with the glow of Cherenkov radiation. That is when the air becomes so radioactive that the oxygen atoms ionize in real time. Those who have seen the unearthly blue glow up close do not often live to tell the tale.

               Unaware of exactly what had happened, but knowing that something must be done, both firefighters and reactor personnel worked as hard as they physically could to get the ruined reactor under control. Attempts were made to put water into the core, as it would hypothetically help moderate any reactions occurring there. But, at this point, the core did not exist anymore.

               Soon, many firefighters and plant personnel began to fall ill. Vomiting, burns, and confusion began to sweep through the men. These are the initial symptoms of Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS). Those suffering from ill symptoms were taken to Prypiat Hospital. But the institute was not equipped for even a small-scale radiation incident, not to mention the dire situation that Chernobyl was in at this point. The critical patients were quickly sent to Moscow Hospital No. 6, the top Soviet hospital for radiation injuries. However, even with treatment, it was not enough for many of those exposed. Officially, there are 31 deaths attributed to the Chernobyl disaster, consisting of firefighters and plant personnel. But this number does not take into account those who came in to clean up the destroyed reactor.

               The roof was covered in radioactive debris. At first, robots were to be used to move the material back into the blown out hole into the roof. But the radiation was so high that the machinery was quickly shorted out. Thus, it was decided that humans must be used to clean. Those sent to the roof were known as Biorobots. One person should have only been on the roof for 90 seconds, doing as much as possible before leaving with a very large dose of radiation. But it would hopefully not be enough that it would cause damage. But many liquidators, both on the roof and decontaminating the 30 meter exclusion zone, were never given ways to track their exposure. Many were simply working until they were told to leave. It is unknown the death toll of Chernobyl liquidators, as the Soviet Union never attributed any of the increased cancer rates to radiation exposure. The increase in childhood cancer is also not considered. The true number of fatalities due to the Chernobyl disaster is unknown.

               There is so much more to the Chernobyl story. From the scientists who handled the unprecedented disaster, to the shady practices of the Soviet government; there are many factors and consequences which can be studied about the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. More sources of information are included in the description.

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Radiotherapy

Radiation is a dichotomous source. It can cause undeniable harm, from cancers to Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS). Despite this, radiation has also been used to treat and cure cancer as well.

               Radiation and the human body do not go well together. To keep it simple, materials that are radioactive can cause cell mutation and death. The mutations make the subject far more likely to develop cancers, as more mutated calls make it difficult for the body to find and eliminate them all, leading to unfortunate effects.

               But scientists had an idea. If radioactive sources can kill off healthy cells, would it be able to also eliminate the cells which contain cancer? To the benefit and survival of millions of tumor and cancer sufferers, it was.

               There are two types of radiotherapy treatments: external and internal. External radiotherapy is when a beam of radiation is aimed and shot directly at the effected cells. By using precise calculations and levels of power, the beam can travel through the body and hit specific areas, only affecting those places. Internal radiotherapy is when a source of radiation is inserted into the body. This can either be done through solid or liquid sources. Both types of internal radiotherapy will lead to the receiver becoming a source of radiation. They will often be quarantined for the duration of their treatment.

               Radiation therapy is usually not the only treatment given during the course of a cancer diagnosis. But it is a powerful, effective one. An NHS article on the topic says “…radiotherapy can be a highly effective treatment for cancer. 4 out of every 10 cancer cures include radiotherapy as part of the treatment plan.” The use of radioactive therapy, under the care of a trained professional, is shown to be effective.

               Despite its fearful reputation, radioactive sources have been utilized to the benefit of mankind. An effective treatment of a long-feared diagnosis, radiotherapy is evidence of the good radioactive and nuclear technology can bring to humanity.

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Marie Curie- The Woman who Changed the World

Marie Curie was born on November 7, 1897. A Nobel laureate, she is well known for being the first woman to receive such award. Her and her husband Pierre Curie were the scientists to discover both radium and polonium.

               Noticing that uranium located in a substance called pitchblende was much more radioactive than normal uranium, the Curie’s began to experiment on the substance. Through hard work and many hours of experimentation, large quantities of the substance eventually lead to the discovery of polonium. Eventually, they were also able to isolate radium. Her contributions to science cannot be understated.

               Her research has led to the creation of various X-ray machines. During World War I, she worked on the front lines, functioning the machines to help injured soldiers. An additional type of X-ray can see moving parts in the body, like the heart pumping.

               She sacrificed her whole life to the study of these elements. Unknowing at the time of the dangers of radioactive materials, she died of leukemia, probably as a result of prolonged radiation exposure. Her research, however, has saved countless lives.  

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Orphan Sources

Humans are prone to misplace things. From car keys to a missing sock, lost objects are a part of our everyday lives. But what if the object was dangerous?

               In the beginning of 2023, headlines were made about how Australia lost a radioactive capsule. Lost radioactive material, known as orphan sources, are, surprisingly, not uncommon. BBC reporter Antoinette Radford writes in an article “Of the nearly 4,000 radioactive sources that have gone missing since the International Atomic Energy Agency started tracking them in 1993, 8% are believed to have been taken for malicious reasons, and 65% were lost accidentally. It is unclear what happened to the rest.”

               Radioactive and nuclear materials are not inherently dangerous. When handled with respect, the materials can power countries, advance scientific discoveries, and help stop cancer. But when accountability for such an important, and dangerous, material is not held with the highest degree of care, preventable accidents are bound to occur.

               While the Australian orphan source was found and properly handled without any known exposure over background level, this has not always been the case. In Goiânia Brazil, 1987, after a hospital closed, their radiotherapy unit was abandoned. Scrap metal dealing is a way to make money in Goiânia, so when two men came across the unit, they began to pick it apart. They found the source, but had no idea of the dangers it held. The cesium-137, a radioisotope, passed from person to person, everyone fascinated with how the powdered substance glimmered and glowed. But soon, the people who had been near the powder began falling ill. Doctors kept putting it off as a tropical disease. It took a while for the authorities to realize what was happening, but by then the contamination had spread across the city. 28 were hospitalized with radiation burns, and four passed away. The youngest victim was six years old.

               Both lifesaving and life ending, radioactive sources must be monitored with the highest degree of care. Efforts to eliminate any potential civilian contact is key if radioactive materials are to continue to be used.

It is unknown how many orphan sources are currently lost throughout the globe.               

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Topics and Additional Resources

I will address many complicated topics through the course of this blog. Broadly, I will be speaking about the discovery of radioactive materials, radiological events, nuclear disasters, and how nuclear technology has changed the world.

The subject of nuclear science is complicated and diverse. All of my knowledge has come from independent research, and I encourage others to do the same. I have no personal take on nuclear energy, though I will cite sources that may contain biases.

Some resources I recommend for more information

Midnight in Chernobyl by Adam Higginbotham- A recent publishing, this comprehensive book establishes a detailed timeline of the most famous nuclear disaster of all time. With both scientific and personal accounts, Higginbotham creates a masterpiece of literature as well as information.

Radioactivity: a Very Short Introduction- Though still incredibly complicated in its language, this book does a basic rundown of all you would ever need to know about radiation.

International Atomic Energy Agency (https://www.iaea.org/)- Pretty self explanatory.

Kyle Hill (https://www.youtube.com/@kylehill/videos)- His Half-Life Histories series cover a variety of topics to do with radiation and nuclear science. It is done with both intelligence and a splash of humor.

Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation by Timothy J. Jorgensen- A true speedrun through the entire history of radiation. It acknowledges both the highs and lows of nuclear technology and radioactive materials.

[starminesister]

November 2021:  While everyone is writing their novels and growing their hairs this month, I decided to go with a month of themed reading. I almost assuredly will not make it through all of these books but I’m gonna try to read as many as possible.