Ethology
Behaviour
Behaviour is the way an organism responds to internal or external changes. It can be innate, which means that it is inborn, such as running for shelter when you hear a loud noise, or it can be learnt, such as when a child learns to share their toys. Most behaviours are carried out in response to a stimulus. For example, when we are hungry, we eat. Eating is the response to a stimulus.
The study of behaviour and its evolutionary component is called ethology. There are 3 scientists accredited with forwarding this field of science. Karl von Frisch, who extensively studied honey bee communication, specifically their “waggle dance” (informally known as bee twerking), Konrad Lorenz, who studied imprinting, and Niko Tinbergen, who is known for studying fixed action patterns.
Fixed Action Pattern
A fixed action pattern is an innate, stereotypical behaviour that must finish once it has begun. Some scientists abbreviate it, however, I will not, for very good reason. Fixed Action Patterns are initiated by an external stimulus called a sign stimulus. When this stimulus is exchanged between members of the same species, they are known as releasers.
Tinbergen studied the stickleback fish. This fish attacks other males who try to invade his territory. The releaser for the attack is the red belly characteristic of males of his species. The stickleback will not attack another male without a red belly, however, will attack inanimate models, as long as the red belly is visible.
Learning
Learning is a complex process, where the responses of an organism are modified due to experience. Lifespan, and brain complexity both impact the ability of an organism to learn.
Habituation
Habituation is one of the most simple forms of learning, where an organism learns to ignore a persistent stimulus. If you tap a dish with a hydra, at first it will shrink and become immobile, however after a while, it will ignore your tapping.
Associative Learning
Associative learning is a type of learning, where one stimulus becomes linked to another. Examples of this are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov. He trained a dog to associate an unconditioned response with a neutral stimulus. By ringing a bell every time he would feed a dog when he rang the bell, the dog would begin to drool.
Operant conditioning is also known as trial and error learning. It is a process where behaviour is encouraged or discouraged, by providing reinforcement, or punishment on a specific schedule.
Imprinting
Imprinting occurs during a critical period of a young organisms life. It is irreversible for the length of that period. A good example is how ducklings learn to follow their mothers and copy what their mothers do. This response disappears when the animal is capable on its own.
Konrad Lorenz studied imprinting with geese. Lorenz imprinted baby geese to himself and watched how they followed him everywhere he went.
Social Behaviour
Social behaviour is defined as an interaction between two or more animals, normally of the same species. This field of study was developed in the 1960s, so is very new.
Cooperation
Cooperation allows a group of animals to be more successful at a given activity, like hunting. Wolf packs are extremely successful at hunting prey much larger than themselves for this reason
Agnostic Behaviour
Agnostic behaviour is aggressive behaviour. It involves threats, and actual violence to settle disputes. These disputes are often about access to resources, like food, mates, or shelter.
Symbolic behaviour, like snarling, raising fur, standing on hind legs, and growling may be used in place of violence. An animal gives in by displaying submissive behaviours, such as losing eye contact, leaving the tail between the legs, or walking away.
Dominance Hierarchies
Dominance hierarchies are the pecking order that decides the social position of an animal. The top of the pecking order often has access to the best resources and is often the fittest animal in the group.
Territoriality
An animals territory is what it defends from other members of the community. Animals use agnostic behaviour to defend their territory.
Altruism
Altruism is a behaviour that reduces an individual’s reproductive fitness to increase the fitness of its group or family, for example when a honeybee stings an intruder. Kin selection is how these traits pass on, despite the organism not being able to reproduce. The relatives are carriers for the trait or behaviour and pass it on to their kin.