Mesopotamian Government: Helping and Serving the Gods
Ancient Mesopotamian government was based on the understanding that human beings were created to help and serve the gods. The high priest, king, assembly of elders, governors, and any other officials were recognized as stewards chosen by the gods to care for the people in the same way a father was expected to care for his family.
The family in ancient Mesopotamia was, in fact, the model for Mesopotamian government as the king and priest were understood as the 'head of a household' who were responsible for the 'extended family' of the people of the city-state, kingdom, or empire. In the Uruk period (circa 4000-3100 BCE), the high priest was in charge of both religious and civic affairs, but this changed in the Early Dynastic period in Mesopotamia (circa 2900-2350/2334 BCE), when kingship was established.
Kingship developed in Sumer from the concept of the lugal ("strong man"), the head of a clan, who had been elevated to that position through effective leadership and military skills. The Sumerian King List gives the first monarch "after the Flood" as Enmebaragesi (reign circa 2700 BCE) of Kish, whose historicity is attested by archaeological evidence, but it also gives the names of legendary kings who ruled from Eridu before the Great Flood (c. 2900 BCE).
With the rise of a king, a division of responsibility was established between the throne and the temple; the king dealt with the administration of civic affairs, and the high priest or priestess with the concerns of the temple. Both king and clergy, however, were understood as serving the will of the primary gods of the state, and so were the officials under them, eventually including:
Palace, Temple, and Administrative Scribes
Support Staff for All of the Above
The details of the government in operation changed with the rise and fall of successive powers – Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Kassite, Hittite, Assyrian, and so on – but the original paradigm of government as established by and serving the will of the gods remained the same. As with many of the innovations, inventions, and 'firsts' of ancient Mesopotamia, the concept of government began in Sumer.
The Sumerian King List begins with the line, "After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridu." Eridu was regarded by the Sumerians as the oldest city in the world, established by the god of wisdom Enki, and the site from which order was established. After the Great Flood, thought by modern-day scholars to be a local event involving the rivers around the city of Shuruppak, kingship moved to Kish. Precisely when kingship was established, however, is impossible to determine, as scholar Stephen Bertman notes:
There is no doubt that Mesopotamia was eventually and for most of its history governed by rulers we might call "kings." Indeed, we even know their names and can catalogue their careers. But exactly when kingship first came into being, under what circumstances it arose, and precisely what its nature was remain matters of scholarly contention. Theories abound, but facts are few.
According to some scholars, kingship was established during the Uruk period by circa 3600 BCE, at which time the division of responsibility between throne and temple was recognized. This was the model of government by the time of the period of Early Dynastic I (circa 2900-2750/2700). The cities that developed throughout Sumer during the Uruk period had by this time expanded, and it is thought it was no longer possible for one man to govern effectively, managing both civic and religious duties.
The structure of the government was based on that of a household, where the father was the head, and all others were below him. The king shared the role of 'head of the household' with the high priest (the king in his palace and the priest in the temple complex, which included a ziggurat), and then came the queen, the counselors, the lesser priests, the military command, and so on. The stability of the household model of government, in which the king was to care for his people as a father for his children, provided the foundation that enabled the development of Sumerian culture, but at the same time, the lack of unity among the Sumerian states, vying for food and water resources as well as trade routes, encouraged ongoing military conflicts.
The first war in recorded history comes from the period of Early Dynastic II (2750/2700-2600 BCE), when Enmebaragesi of Kish defeated Elam in 2700 BCE. This is simply the first conflict recorded, however, and there were no doubt many earlier as the city-states established their territories. Trade in ancient Mesopotamia contributed to the wars between the city-states, as each tried to outdo the others in acquiring long-distance and local markets and maintaining the fastest routes between production centers, merchants, and customers.
By Early Dynastic III (2600-2350 BCE), Enmebaragesi had already founded his empire in Sumer, and other kings – such as Gilgamesh of Uruk – had expanded his city's reach. The only queen on the Sumerian King List – Kubaba of Kish – built on the accomplishments of Enmebaragesi, but each Sumerian city-state not under direct control of another still had its own king, high priest, administration, and military.
⇒ Mesopotamian Government: Helping and Serving the Gods
